English Language & Comprehension Skills One-Word Substitution A person who is out to destroy all government and order Anarchist
Government by the people
Democracy The whole mass of air surrounding the earth Atmosphere
One who is not sure of the existence of God
Agnostic A medicine which prevents infection by killing germs Antiseptic
One who does something not professionally but for pleasure
Amateur A statement open to more than one interpretation Ambiguous
One who makes an official examination of accounts
Auditor Marrying more than one wife or more than one husband at a time Polygamy
The science that studies plants
Botany The science which studies natural processes of living things Biology
People working together in the same office or department
Colleagues The state of remaining unmarried Celibacy
The action of bringing into completion
Consummation To give one's authority to another Delegate
Study of the relation of living things to environment
Ecology The action of looking within or into one's own mind Introspection
One incapable of being tired
Indefatigable A letter, poem, etc. whose auther is unknown Anonymous
Work for which no salary is paid
Honorary One who looks at the bright side of things Optimist
One who cannot read or write
Illiterate A game or battle in which neither party wins Draw
Holding established opinions
Orthodox Hater of women Misogynist
The study of the origin and physical and cultural development of manking
Anthropology The science which studies the crust of the earth Geology
The science which studies animals
Zoology Happening at one and the same time Simultaneous
Murder or murderer of oneself
Suicide Lasting only for a very short while Temporary
Capable of being seen through
Transparent The first speech delivered by a person Maiden
The art practised by statesmen and ambassadors
Diplomacy One who walks on foot Pedestrian
One who lives on others
Parasite One who speaks for others Spokesperson
One who spends very little
Miser One who prossesses several talents or gifts Versatile
One who eats vegatables only
Vegetarian A thing that is fit to be eaten Edible
A statement absolutely clear
Explicit A widespread disease affecting many people at the same time Epidemic
A trade that is prohibited by law
Gala day A desire that cannot be represed Illicit
A method that cannot be imitated
Irrespressible Remarks which do not really apply to the subject under discussion Inimitable
A story that can hardly be believed
Incredible A comparison that is out of place Inapt
That which cannot be satisfied
Insatiable A remedy which never fails Infallible
A thing that cannot be seen with human eyes
Invisible One who is very easily made angry Irritable
An ordinary and common place remark
Platitude A sum paid to a man for a piece of work Remuneration
The act of violating the sanctity or destroying the property of a sacred place
Sacrilege To make up one's mind and change it quickly Vacillate
A person with a long experience of any occupation
Veteran A place where clothes are kept Wardrobe
A state of complete continence on the part of a woman
Virginity A man who has too much enthusiasm for his own religion and hates other Fanatic
religions
One who makes calculations connected with insurance
Actuary A country, etc. which is very distant Remote
To send out of one's native country
Exile A person chosen by parties who have a controversy to settle their differences Mediator
Notice of death, especially in a newspaper
Obituary Notice of death, especially in a newspaper Obituary
Opinion contrary to accepted doctrines
Heresy Great clapping and cheering Applause
Exclusive possession of the trade in some commodity
Monopoly Sole right to make and sell some invention Patent
English Language & Comprehension Skills Sentence Correction (MCQ -6) Directions: Each of the following question is in the form of a sentence with four underlined portions marked a, b, c and d, respectively. Choose the marked portion that carries errors. If no error required then your answer is 5. 1. A tapestry consists of a foundation weave, a called the wrap, which across are passed b several colored threads, called wefts, c forming decorative patterns. d 2. The fossil remains of much extinct a mammals have been found in the tar pits b c or Rancho Brea in Los Angles. d 3. Chemical engineering is based on the a principles of physics, chemists, and b c mathematics. d 1b 2a 3c
English Language & Comprehension Skills Foreign Words and Phrases 1. Ab initio (Latin) From the beginning. 2. Aborigine (Latin) Native, any of the earliest known inhabitants of a certain region. 3. Actionnaire (French) Shareholder. 4. Actualite (French) Real existence; appropriateness. 5. Ad hoc (Latin) For the special purpose. 6. Ad interim (Latin) In the meantime; temporary. 7. Ad libitum (Latin) As one pleases. 8. Ad referendum (Latin) For further consideration. 9. Ad valorem (Latin) According to value. 10. A Dio (Italian) To God; Addio!Adieu! 11. Agamemnon (Greek) The leader of the Greeks in the Trojan war, king of Mycenae. 12. Aide (French) An assistant, a helper, a mate. 13. Air noble (French) An air of distinction. 14. Ajax (Latin, Greek) The Greek hero next to Achilles in the Trojan war. 15. Alectryon (Greek) A cock. 16. Allah it Allah (Arabian) There is no God but the God the Moslem war cry. 17. Alopecia (Latin, Greek) Fox mange : a skin disease, which destroys the hair; baldness. 18. Allure (French) Mien, gait, air. 19. Alpeen (Irish) A cudgel. 20. Alter ego (Latin) One‘s second self, a very close friend, a representative. 21. Affair d‘amour (French) A love affair. 22. A‘la mode (French) According to the custom; in fashion. 23. Alma Mater (Latin) Benign mother; A term applied by students to the school, college or university where they have been educated. 24. Anno Christi (Latin) In the year of Christ. 25. Anno Dontini (Latin) In the year of Christ. 26. Ante Meridiem (Latin) Before noon. 27. Ars longa, vita brevis (Latin) Art is long, life is short. 28. Au contraire (Latin) On the contrary. 29. Au revoir (French) Adieu, until we meet again.
30. Auto (Spanish) An act, a drama. 31. Bacchus (Latin, Greek) The god of wine. 32. Basta (Italian) Enough ! No more ! 33. Bastide (French) A French country house. 34. Beau garcon (French) A handsome man. 35. Beau jour (French) Fine day, good times. 36. Beaux-arts (French) The fine arts. 37. Beneficiare (French) The person receiving benctits. 38. Bene qui latiut bene vixit (Latin) He has lived\ell who has lived obscure. 39. Billet-doux (French) A love letter. 40. Bonn fide (Latin) In good faith. 41. Bon hoinie (French) Good nature. 42. Bonjour (French) Good day; good morning. 43. Bon voyage (French) A good journey to you. 44. Boutique (French) A shop. tradesman‘s stock. 45. Bourgeoisee (French) The social class between the aristocracy and the working class; middle class. 46. Bravo (Italian) Well done; splendid. 47. Cadre (French) A frame, a scheme; a list of officers. 48. Cafe (French) Coffee. 49. Camaraderie (French) Comrade; Friendly fellowship. 50. Carpe diem (Latin) Enjoy the present day. 51. Cara sposa (Italian) Dear wife. 52. Chef (French) A cook in charge of a kitchen; head cook 53. Chesara‘ Sara‘ (Italian) What will be will be. 54. Cognito, ergo sum (Latin) I think, therefore, I am. 55. Coiffeur (French) Hair dresser. 56. Contra (Latin) Against. 57. Corpus (Latin) The body of a man or animal, especially a dead body. 58. Coup d‘etat (French) Sudden decisive blow in politics. 59. Creme (French) Cream.
60. Creme de la creme (French) Cream of the cream; the very best. 61. Danke, Schoon (German) Many thanks. 62. De bonne grace (French) With good grace. 63. De facto (Latin) In fact, actually. 64. De jure (Latin) In the law; by right. 65. Dei gratin (Latin) By the grace of God. 66. Deluxe (French) Luxurious. 67. Dennode (French) Out of fashion. 68. Desagrement (French) Something disagreeable. 69. Detenu (French) A prisoner. 70. Deus ex inachina (Latin) A character or event brought artificially into the plot of a story or drama to settle an involved situation. 71. Distrait (French) Absent minded. 72. Dramatis personae (Latin) Characters in a drama or a play. 73. Donna e‘ mobile (Italian) Woman is changeable. 74. Duce (Italian) A leader. 75. Ecce! (Latin) Behold! 76. Edition deluxe (French) A splendid and expensive edition of a book. 77. Elegant (French) A person of fashion. 78. Elite (French) The best part. 79. En famille (French) With one‘s family; at home; in an informal way. 80. En masse (French) In a group, universally. 81. En prince (French) In princely style. 82. En queue (French) In a string or line. 83. En rapport (French) In agreement, in accord with. 84. En route (French) On the way. 85. Entente (French) An understanding; agreement. 86. Entrepreneur (French) A business man. 87. En rills (French) In town, ‗not at home‘. 88. Espirit de corps (French) Group spirit, sense of pride. 89. Errare est liumaru in (Latin) To err is human. 90. Estancia (Spanish) A mansion.
91. Ethos (Greek) Permanent character; in literature and art, chief characteristics of a work as affecting the intellectual andmoral faculties, as opposed to pathos which appeals to the emotions. 92. Etoile (French) Star. 93. Et tu, Brute ! (Latin) You too,Brutus! (Caesar‘s exclamation, when he sawhismuch loved Brutus amongst the murderers.) 94. Euge! (Latin, Greek) Well done! 95. Eureka (Meureka) (Greek) I have found it. 96. Excelsior (Latin) Higher; (erroneously) upwards. 97. Exceptio confirmat (probat) The exception proves the rule. regular (Latin) 98. Ex officio (Latin) By virtue of his office. 99. Ex post facto (Latin) After the deed is done; done or made after wards. 100. Extra (Latin) Beyond, outside the scope of. 101. Fade (French) To become less distinct. 102. Fait accompli (French) A thing already done. 103. Fenome (French) Woman, wife. 104. Festa (Italian) A festival. 105. Flair (French) Aptitude; a natural talent or ability. 106. Gallant (French) Gay, elegant, attentive to ladies. 107. Gens de letters (French) Literaryman. 108. Grand (French) Great. 109. Heil (German) Flail! 110. Homo sapiens (Latin) Mankind; human beings. III. Hotel (French) A hotel, a mansion. 112. Id est (Latin) That is. 113. Ibidem (Latin) In the same place, thing or case. 114. In camera (Latin) In the chamber of the judge. 115. In toto (Latin) In the whole; entirely. 116. Impasse (French) A deadlock. 117. In memoriam (Latin) In the memory of. 118. In petto (Italian) Secretly, not revealed. 119. Inter alia (Latin) Among other things.
120. Inter alios (Latin) Among the persons. 121. Kinder (German) Children. 122. L‘allegro (Italian) The cheerful man. 123. Libra (Latin) A pound; a unit of weight. 124. Lingua franca (Italian) Mixed language. 125. Litterateur (French) A man of letters. 126. Locus Standi (Latin) A right to interfere. 127. Magnum opus (Latin) A great work. 128. Malentendu (French) Misunderstood; poorly conceived. 129. Matinee (French) Reception or entertainment held in the afternoon. 130. Milieu (French) Surroundings; environment. 131. Modus (Latin) Manner, mode. 132. Modus operandi (Latin) Manner of working. 133. Monsieur (French) Sir, Mr. 134. Monstre scare (French) A popular public figure who is considered above criticism. 135. Mon and (French) My friend. 136. Nil (Latin) Nothing. 137. Non (Latin) Not. 138. Octroi (French) Duties paid at the gate of a city. 139. Oninia vincist labor (Latin) Labour overcomes all things. 140. Opera (Latin) Plural of opus. Musical works of a composer numbered in order of composition or publication. 141. Oil (French) yes. 142. Par excellence (French) Eminently, beyond comparison. 143. Par example (Latin) For example. 144. Persona grata (Latin) A person who is acceptable or welcome. 145. Postmortem (Latin) Happening done or made after death. 146. Post (Latin) After, e.g., afternoon. 147. Pater (Latin) Father. 148. Potage (French) Soup. 149. Prima facie (Latin) On first view. 150. Quantum (Latin) Quantity, or amount.
151. Quasi (Latin) As if, seemingly. 152. Regime (French) Form of government. 153. Resume (French) An abstract or summary. 154. R.S.V.P. (Reponds si‘1 Reply, if you please, an answer will oblige. vous plait) (French) 155. Suns souci (French) Without care. 156. Sine die (Latin) Without a day being appointed. 157. Status quo (Latin) The existing state of existing affair. 158. Status quoante (Latin) The state of affairs existing prior to a given event. 159. Terra incognita (Latin) An unknown country. 160. Tete-a-tete (French) A private or intimate conversation between two people. 161. Ultra vires (Latin) Beyond one‘s powers. 162. Viamedia (Latin) Amiddle course. 163. Vice versa (Latin) The order or relation being reversed, conversely. 164. Vis-a-vis (French) Opposite; face to face. 165. Viva voce (Latin) By word of mouth; orally. 166. Vive la (French) Long live!
English Language & Comprehension Skills Idioms & Phrases Back out — to withdraw from a promise, contract : I felt grieved when he backed out of his promise to help me. Back up — to support; to sustain : He backed up his report with relevant statistics. Bear upon — to be relevant to : This argument does not bear upon the subject under discussion. Blow up — to explode : The mine blew up and all the labourers working inside were killed. — to reprimand or scold : If you continue to be negligent, the teacher will blow you up. Break down — of a car; a piece of machinery; to go wrong so that it will not function : The car broke down on our way to Mumbai. — to collapse; to succumb to uncontrollable weeping : She broke down completely on hearing the news of her husband's death. — to succumb to a nervous collapse through overwork or worry : He worked so hard that his health broke down near the examination. Break off — to end; to discontinue; to desist : We had to break off our conversation when he arrived. She broke off in the middle of the story. She did not like his nature and broke off the engagement. Break up — to disperse; to dissolve : The college will break up for the Puja holidays on 25th October. The meeting will break up after the President has addressed the audience. Bring up — to rear : Those brought up in adversity are able to cope with life better. Call forth — to provoke : The minister's views on the disinvestgment policy of the government called forth a good deal of bitter criticism. Call out — to shout : I called out to him but he disappeared in the dark. — to announce by calling or shouting : The Manager called out to the peon that he was being immediately fired. Call upon — to order; to require : I was unfortunately called upon to give evidence against him. Carry on — to continue : If you carry on working hard, your business will soon flourish. — to manage : He carried on his business so well that he soon amassed a huge fortune. Cast away — to throw aside : You must cast away all your apprehensions and accept the offer. Catch up with — to overtake; to draw level : Last week I had to stay late at the office to catch up with some pending files. Come off — to take place : The prize distribution came off on Tuesday last. — to turn out successful : His speeches at the conference always came off beautifully. Cry down — to deprecate; to make little of : You must not unneccessarily cry down the conduct of others. Cry out against — to complain loudly against : The opposition parties cried out against the fast pace of the globalisation of the Indian economy. Cut out — designed for : Your were cut out to be a lecturer in a college. Drop in — to visit casually : On my way to the college, I dropped in at Mira's place. Drop out — As the race progressed, many children dropped out. Fall back — to recede; to retreat : On seeing the armed guards, the civilians fell back. Fall down — from a higher position to a lower one : The branch gave way and he fell down into the canal.
Fall off — to withdraw; to drop off : Some of our subscribers have fallen off. Friends fall off in adversity. Fall under — to come under : This colony does not fall under my jurisdiction. Get along — to prosper; to progress; to proceed : Well, doctor, how is your patient getting along? It is simply impossible to get along with him. Get on with — to live pleasantly together; to progress : How are you getting on with your studies? Get into — to be involved in : It is easy to get into scandals but hard to come out unscathed. Give in — to surrender; to yield : I gave into her repeated requests and accepted the offer. Give over — not to do any longer : It is time you gave over pretending that you have access to the Prime Minister. Go after — to follow; to pursue : The policeman went after the thief but the latter managed to escape in the dark of the night. Go down — to be accepted : The terrorist attack onWTC will go down in history as one of the worst acts of terrorism. Go without — to remain without : he is so poor that sometimes he has to go without food. Go by — to follow : I am sorry to disappoint you but we have to go by the rules. — to elapse (used of time) : Months have gone by but I have not called upon him. Hang about — to loiter near a place : Last evening I say your friend hanging about your house. Hang upon — to depend upon : The success of any venture hangs upon the seriousness with which it is undertaken. Hold out — to endure; to refuse to yield : How long can you hold out against starvation? — to continue : Sugar stocks are not likely to hold out very long. — to offer : She held out her hand to the Prince. Hold to — abide by : Whatever resistance there might be, I will hold to my decision. Keep off — to ward off : His stern looks keep off the flatterers. — to maintain : They have been trying to keep up their standard of living though there has been a considerable decline in their income. Keep up with — to keep pace with : You read too fast; I cannot keep up with you. Knock out — to win by hitting the opponent insensible in a boxing bout : The challenger was knocked out in two minutes. Lay By — to put away for future use : She has laid by five thousand rupees to celebrate her marriage anniversary. Lay in — to store for future use : Anticipating scarcity of foodgrains, they laid in a good store of provisions. Let down — to fail a friend : Won't I feel grieved if my own friends let me down? Let into — to suffer to enter; to admit : Despite his pleadings, they did not let him into the meeting. I shall let no one into my secrets. Let out — to lease on hire : In my immediate neighbourhood, there is a decent house to let out. — to loosen : Let us let out the dog for a while. Look about — to study one's surroundings : The thief looked about himself before entering the house. Look for — to search for : The old woman was looking for her spectacles. Look up — to search for and find : Please look up this word in the dictionary. — to have an upward tendency (said of prices): The price of sugar is loking up these days. Make off with — to run away with : The servant made off with the master's watch. Makeover — to transfer : He has made over the building to his son.
Make up — to supply what is deficient : You must work hard during the Dussehra holidays and try to make up your deficiency in English. — to invent or fabricate : She made up a story to get rid of the visitor. — to reconcile : They have made up their quarrel and are now getting on quite well. Pass away — to die : His sister passed away in the early hours of the morning. Pass by — to disregard; to omit : He did not invite me to his birthday. It appears that he passed me by. — to go alongside of : You passed by my house the day before yesterday. Pick out — to select or choose : The teacher picked out the best student from the class. Pick up — to recover or regain health after an illness: He has become so weak that he will take two months to pick up. Play upon — (a musical instrument) : She played upon the harmonium and sang a melodious song. — to take advantage of : The blackmailer played upon her love for her husband. Pull down — to demolish; to destory : The old house was pulled down to create space for multi-storey flats. Pull up — to take to task : The teacher was always pulling him up for his bad handwriting. Put off — to postpone : We had to put off the wedding till the war was over. — to lay aside : He put off his shoes before entering the temple. — to turn one aside from a purpose or demand: I approached him for some help but he put me off with mere words. Put into — to drag into : Don't put me into the argument. Put out — to extinguish : It is time to put out the light and go to sleep. — to perturb, to annoy : I was put out on hearing that I had incurred heavy losses in the recent business transactions. Run away — to flee : The little girl took a necklace and ran away. Run away with — to steal and depart with : The cashier ran away with twenty thousand rupees. Run off — to break off from control : The dog broke the chain and ran off. Run over — to drive over : The car ran over the pedestrian as he was crossing the road. — to flow over : The tant is running over. Run through — to squander or waste : It took him only a few months to run through all the money his father had left him. — to read quickly : I will just run through this lesson and tell you what it is all about. — to pierce : The needle ran through her finger when she was stitching her shirt. See into — to attend to : You can set right the situation if you see to it at an early date. Set in — to begin : As soon as rains set in, it beecomes pleasant. Set up — to establish; to open a new business : He is soon going to set up as a financier. Speak for — to recommend somebody or to urge somebody's claims : If you speak form to the Manager, I am sure he will look at my case favourably. Speak on — to deliver a lecture on : This evening I am going to speak on the changing concepts of morality in various ages. Stand off — to keep at a distance : Would you please stand off? I brook no interference in my way of work. Strike for — to stop work for some reason : The labourers have struck for higher wages. Take after — to resemble : The younger sister takes after the elder one. Take for — to form an impression about somebody's identity : I was taken for a South Indian. Take in — to deceive : She thinks her oily tongue can take everybody in.
Take to — to become addicted to : He took to gambling and drinking at a very early age. — to form a liking for : Of late she has taken to painting. Tell against — to prove adverse to; to go against : I am sure these facts are going to tell against your case. Throw about — to fling here and there : to leave in disorder : The child threw his books about and ran off to play. Throw away — to lose through carelessness : You have thrown away a golden opportunity. Turn against — to become hostile to : I shall not give up my principles even if the whole world turns against me. Turn aside — to deviate; to digress : Never turn aside from the path of virtue.
English Language & Comprehension Skills Narration (Direct and Indirect) In our speech, we often speak to the other person of some thing that was said to us by somebody. In other words, we often report a speech whether ours or someone else‘s. We do this in two ways. We either report the speech exactly as we had heard or said it without making any change. This is called Direct Speech. Example: The girl said to her mother, ―My plate is empty.‖ Or we may change the sentence that we had heard or said without changing its meaning and then report it. This is called Indirect Speech. Example: The girl said to her mother that her plate was empty. In the first example, the first part of the sentence which is before the comma, is referred to as reporting verb and the part which is within inverted commas is called the reported speech. Note: While transforming from direct into indirect, we have made several changes in the sentence above : 1. We have removed the comma in the indirect sentence and put that in its place. 2. We have removed the inverted commas of the reported speech. 3. We have changed the my of the reported speech into her. 4. We have not used any capital letter in between the sentence unlike in the direct form where the reported speech always begins with a capital letter. Now, in order to bring about these changes while converting from direct into indirect or vice-versa, there are several important but simple rules that need to be observed. They are : 1. Changes in Tense and Verb: While changing from direct to indirect we have to make different changes regarding tenses, verbs or helping verb. A short list is given below to have a look on those changes:
Change of Tenses Direct Indirect Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Present Continuous Past Continuous Present Perfect Past Perfect Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Past Indefinite Past Perfect Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect No change Past Perfect Continuous No change (a) If the reporting verb, i.e. the main verb in the first part of the sentence before comma is in the present or the future tense, the tense of the verbs in the reported speech will not change. Examples: Direct : Mummy says, ―I shall write a letter.‖ Indirect : Mummy says that she will write a letter. (b) If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the verbs in the reported speech will be changed into their corresponding past tense. Examples: Direct : The boy said to his friend. ―I write everyday.‖ (Present Indefinite) Indirect : The boy said to his friend that he wrote everyday. (Past Indefinite) Direct : The boy said to the teacher, ―I am going there everyday.‖ (Present Continuous) Indirect : The boy said to the teacher that he was going there everyday. (Past Continuous) (a) If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the simple past In the reported speech may become the past perfect in the Indirect. Examples: Direct : He said, ―The horse died in the night.‖ (Simple Past) Indirect : He said that the horse had died in the night. (Past Perfect) Direct : He said, ―The man came at six.‖ (Simple Past) Indirect : He said that the man had come at six. (Past Perfect) (b) If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the past continuous in the reported speech changes into the past perfect continuous. Examples
Direct : He said, ―The man was coming.‖ (Past Continuous) Indirect : He said that the man had been coming. (Past Perfect Continuous) Direct : He said, ―Rain was falling yesterday.‖ (Past Continuous) Indirect : He said that rain had been failing the previous day. (Past Perfect Continuous) 3. Change of person: The persons of the pronouns and of the verbs In the reported speech undergo changes when converted Into indirect form. Thus : (a) First person pronouns in the direct reporter speech change according to the subject of the reporting verb. The other changes are given in the table below : Direct Indirect Ram said I Ram said that he “ we “ they “ my “ his Direct : He says, ―I am going to Delhi. Indirect : He says that he is going to Delhi. Direct : Mummy says, ―I will have to go.‖` Indirect : Mummy says that she will have to go. (b) Second person pronouns change according to the noun or pronoun coming after the reporting verbs. Second person changes to third, if there is no mention of second person in the reporting verb part, so : Direct Indirect You He Your His/Her You (Plural) They Your (Plural) Their You (Object) Him/Her You (Object) Them Yours (object) Theirs But if there ismention of you (second person) in the direct speech, you in the indirect speech remains unchanged. Direct : Ram said to you, ―You are a good boy.‖ Indirect : Ram said to you that you were a good boy. So : Direct Indirect You You You (Plural) You Your Your
Your (Plural) Your You (Object) You (Object) Examples: Direct : I said to Mohan, ―You will have to read.‖ Indirect : I said to Mohan that he would have to read. Direct : Ram said to you, ―You are wrong.‖ Indirect : Ram said to you that you were wrong. (c) Third person pronouns of the direct speech remain unchanged when converted to indirect. Examples: Direct : Sita said to me, ―He will be defeated.‖ Indirect : Sita said to me that he would be defeated. Direct : She said, ―He has come.‖ Indirect : She said that he had come, 4. Said to : If the reporting verb said to is followed by an object, it Is changed into told while converting it into indirect speech. Examples: Direct : She said to her mother, ―I have done my work.‖ Indirect : She told her mother that she had done her work. Direct : He said to me, ―There is no more water.‖ Indirect : He told me that there was no more water. Note: If there ismention of first person in the reporting verb part, then second person in the direct (reported) speech changes to first person., e.g., Direct : Ram said to me, ―You are a good boy.‖ Indirect : Ram told me that I was a good boy. Direct Indirect You (Singular) I You (Plural) We Your (Singular) My Your (Plural) Our You (Object, Singular) Me You (Object, Plural) Us 5. If the reported speech has two actions which are both in the past continuous tense, its tense will not change while converting into indirect speech.
Example: Direct : She said, ―The cat was running and the dog was chasing it.‖ Indirect : She said that the cat was running and the dog was chasing it. Similarly, if the reported speech is in the past tense and indicates time or period, its tense will not change. Example: Direct : She said, ―I worked in Delhi for two years.‖ Indirect : She said that she worked in Delhi for two years. 6. Must and need not (a) In some cases, must and need not are used in place of have to. Examples: Direct : lie said, ―I must go now.‖ Indirect : He said that he had to go then. Direct : He said, ―I need not go.‖ Indirect : He said that he will not have to go. (b) Must is used in place of shall have to when it expresses necessity or compulsion. Examples: Direct : He said, ―I must finish this book on Monday.‖ Indirect : He said that he would have to finish that book on Monday. Direct : He said, ―I need not write this essay.‖ Indirect : He said that he would not have to write that essay. (b) Must sometimes indicates an order or a command. Note: But in some sentences when must indicates some kind of advice or suggestion and compulsion; in those sentences must remains must. Example: Direct : The policeman said to us, ―You must not cross the road against the red light.‖ Indirect : The policeman told us that we must not cross the road against the red light. 7. In the case of interrogative sentences, the following rules need to be observed while changing into Indirect. (a) Said to is changed into asked. It can also be changed into enquired or demanded depending on the nature of the sentence. (b) If the question in the reported speech begins with a helping verb, i.e. is, am, are, was, were, do, does, did, may,, might, can, could, will, would, must, etc., the inverted commas are replaced by if or whether.
(c) If the question starts with who, whose, when, where, what, which, why, how, no conjunction is used in place of the inverted commas. Examples: Direct : He said to me, ―Where are you going?‖ Indirect : He asked me where I was going. Direct : He said to me, ―What are you doing?‖ Indirect : He asked me what I was doing. 8. Imperative sentences: (a) In the imperative sentence, the sense of order, command, advice, request, entreaty, warning, etc. are conveyed. So, said to changes into ordered, requested, advised, commanded, warned, forbade, etc. depending on the nature of the sentence. (b) Inverted commas (― ―) are replaced by to. (c) In the sentences of negative imperative, don‘t or do not is substituted by not to. (d) If the imperative sentence starts with let and expresses some proposal or suggestion, said to should be changed into proposed to, or suggested to. Examples: Direct : The master said to the servant, ―Post the letter at once.‖ Indirect : The master ordered the servant to post the letter at once. Direct : I said to my son, ―Work hard for a better tomorrow.‖ Indirect : I advised my son to work hard for a better tomorrow. 9. Some more rules i. Said to is changed into wished. (In the case of Good morning, Good noon, Good afternoon Good evening, etc.) ii. Said to is changed into bade. (In case of Good night, Good bye, Farewell, etc.) iii. If the sentence expresses some desire (i.e. starts with would that, that if, etc.), said to is changed into wished. iv. If the sentence expresses some wish or prayer (i.e. starts with May - -! or May God —!), said to is changed into wished or prayed. v. If an exclamatory sentence expresses sorrow, grief or pain, said to is changed to exclaimed with sorrow that or exclaimed with grief that, etc. vi. Said to is changed to exclaimed with joy that or exclaimed joyfully that, etc., if an exclamatory sentence expresses joy. vii. Said to is changed to applauded saying/telling, calling out that, etc. (In case of exclamatory sentences expressing approval
Examples: Direct : He said to me, ―Good morning.‖ Indirect : He wished me good morning. Direct : The boy said, ―If I could win this game.‖ Indirect : The boy wished that he could win that game. Direct : She said to him, ―May God grant you success in the examination.‖ Indirect : She prayed that God might grant him success in the examination. English Language & Comprehension Skills Sentence (Part - 2) The Conjunction A word that is used to join words or phrases or sentences is called a Conjunction. Examples i. God made the country and man made the town. ii. She must work hard, or she will fail. iii. Three and three make six. iv. Madan and Sonu are brothers. In (i) and (ii), the conjunctions join two sentences. In (iii) and (iv), the conjunctions join two words only. Some Facts about Conjunctions 1. A conjunction is never connected with an object. 2. A conjunction never qualifies a word. Classes of Conjunctions Conjunctions are sub-divided into two main classes (i) Co-ordinating Conjunctions join words, phrases or clauses of co-ordinate (of equal) rank. He is guilty as well as you. (ii) Subordinating Conjunctions join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (that is, to a clause of higher rank).
Principal
Conjunction
Subordinate
I will read that book
if
you recommend it. (i) Coordinating Conjunctions are of four kinds (a) Cumulative or copulative which merely add one statement or fact to another; as, He is not only honest, but also hard working. We carved not a line, and raised not a stone. Cumulative conjunctions are- and, both and, as well as, not only but also. (b) Adversative conjunctions which express opposition or contrast between two statements; as. He is sad but hopeful. Adversative conjunctions as but, whereas, while, only, and still.
(c) Disjunctive or Alternative which express a choice between two alternatives; as, Work hard, else you will repent. Either he is mad or he feigns madness. Disjunctives are either.... or, neither.... nor, or, else. (d) Illative which express an inference; as, He will die someday, for all men are mortal. (ii) Subordinating Conjunctions may be classified according to their meaning, as follows : 1. Of Time : When, whenever, while, as, before, ere, after, since, until, till. Examples Ram has not phoned since he went to Delhi. She returned home after he had gone. 2. Of Place: Where, wherever, whence, whether. Examples You can go wherever you like. Sita found her frock where she had left it. 3. Of Cause or Reason : Because, since, as, that. Examples I am glad that you like it. He will pass the examination because he has worked hard. 4. Of Purpose : That (in order that), lest. Examples We cat that we may live. He worked hard lest he should fail in the examination. 5. Of Result or Consequence: That. Examples Mina behaved in such a manner that all disliked her. He was so tired that he could scarcely stand. 6. Of Condition : If unless, whether. Examples Sita will dance if Reema dances. You cannot succeed unless you work hard. 7. Of Comparison : As, than. Examples Hail is as intelligent as Shyam.
Madan is more intelligent than Manoj. 8. Extent or Manner : As. Examples Men will reap as they sow. You may do as you please. By Tense, we understand the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time. Tense shows (a) the time of an action (b) its degree of completeness. The verb may tell us: 1. That an action is done at the present time, e.g., I see the blue sky. 2. That an action was done in the past time, e.g., He saw the blue sky. 3. That an action will be done in the future time, e.g., He will see the blue sky. 4. That an action was done at some past time, viewed as future (‗uture in the past), e.g., He said that he would be sixteen in three weeks‘ time. A verb, then, has three main times or tenses, viz. the Present, the Past and the Future. To each tense, there are four different forms : Simple which denotes present, past or future time in its simplest form : ‗I play‘, ‗I played‘, ‗I shall play‘. The action (in present, past or future time) is mentioned simply, without anything being said about the completeness or incompleteness of the action. Continuous which denotes that the event (in present,. past or future time) is still continuing or not yet completed : ‗I ant reading‘, I was reading‘, ‗I shall be reading‘. Perfect which denotes that the event (in present, past or future time) is in a completed or perfect state : ‗I have played‘, `I had played‘, `I shall have played‘. Perfect Continuous which combines the meanings of the two preceding forms, ‗I have been reading‘, ‗I had been reading‘, ‗I shall have been reading‘. The Present Continuous is used to express an action going on at the time of speaking, e.g., The boys are flying kites. He is playing cricket. I am reading a book. (a) It also sometimes expresses habit or custom; as, He is attending college very regularly these days. (b) For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time of speaking; as, I am reading David Copperfield. (but I am not reading it at this moment). (c) For an action that is planned or arranged to take place in the near future; as, I ant going to my father tomorrow. She is going to write a book. The Present Perfect invariably connects a completed event in one sense or the other with the present time. e.g., I have lived twenty years in Lucknow. (that is, I ant living there still and I began to live there twenty years ago.) I have passed my examination; I passed it two years ago. He has been to London; he went there in 1948. The present perfect denotes an action completed at the time of speaking; as, I have solved all the sums.
He has visited all the Indian temples. She has read most of Scott‘s novels. The verb in this tense is used in its third form. (1) An affirmative sentence of the present perfect tense is formed a. by adding has before the verb if the subject is in the singular number, e.g., He has eaten. It has eaten. Ram has eaten. b. by adding have before the verb if the subject is in the plural number or in the singular number of only the first and the second person, e.g., I have eaten. They have eaten. You have eaten. The children have eaten. (2) A negative sentence of the present perfect tense is formed by simply inserting not between has or have and verb, e.g., She has not eaten. I have not eaten. They have not eaten, etc. (3) An interrogative sentence of the present perfect tense is formed by putting the subject between has or have and verb, e.g., Have you eaten? Has she eaten‘? Have I eaten? Have they eaten‘? Present Perfect Continuous is used for an action which began sometime in the past and is still continuing, e.g., He has been sleeping for five hours (and is still sleeping). I have been doing this for several months. I have been writing this book for four years. This tense is sometimes used for an action already finished. In such cases, the continuity of the activity is emphasized as an explanation of something, e.g., Why are your clothes so wet? I have been watering the garden. Present ‘Tense at a Glance Under this tense, the verb Is used in the first form with ing added to It. (1) An affirmative sentence of the present perfect continuous is formed by adding have been or has been to the verb according to the number or person of the subject e.g., I have been eating. You have been eating. He has been eating. (2) A negative sentence of this tense is formed by inserting not between has/have and been, e.g., I have not been eating. You have not been eating. He has not been eating. (3) An interrogative sentence of this tense is formed by interchanging has/have and the subject. e.g., Have I been eating‘? Have they been eating? Have you been eating? Has he been eating? The Simple Past or Past Indefinite is used to denote an action in the past; e.g., My father died yesterday. He left office at 5.30 p.m. She lived in Delhi for 10 years. Babur founded the Mughal Empire in India. It also denotes a habitual action in the past, e.g., We studied and planned for years. She always carried a bag. The verb in this tense is used in its second or past form. (1) In an affirmative sentence, the form of the verb remains the same whatever the number or person of the subject, e.g., I ate. She ate. They ate. You ate. (2) In a negative sentence of the simple past, did not is added to the verb and the verb used in its original or present form, e.g., I did not eat. She did not eat. They did not eat. You did not eat.
(3) In an interrogative sentence of the simple past, the subject is placed between did and the verb. The verb, like in the negative, is used in its original or present form, e.g., Did you eat? Did they eat? Did I eat? Did she eat‘? The Past Continuous expresses an action going on at some time in the past; e.g., When she came into my room. I was studying. When Rajan called upon his friend, he was singing. It was getting dark. The method for making each continuous sentences is the same as that for making present continuous in the affirmative, interrogative and negative. The only difference is that was will be substituted for is/am and were for are, e.g., I was eating. You were eating. She was eating. They were eating. Or Was I eating? Were you eating? Was she eating? Were they eating? Or I was not eating. She was not eating. They were not eating. You were not eating. The Past Perfect is used whenever we wish to say that an action had been completed before another was commenced. The verb expressing the previous action is put into the past perfect tense. The verb expressing the subsequent action is put into the simple past. (a) Previous Action Subsequent Action (Past Perfect) (Simple Past). He had been ill for two days when the doctor was sent for. He had seen many foreign cities before he returned home. (b) Subsequent Action Previous Action The sheep fled in great for a wolf had entered haste the field. The ship was sunk by a storm which had suddenly sprung up. The past perfect ought never to be used except to show the priority of one past event over another. The past perfect is formed by the same method as the present perfect tense in the affirmative, interrogative and negative. The only difference is that had is substituted for has and have, e.g., She had eaten. I had eaten. They had eaten. We had eaten. Or Had they eaten? Had you eaten? Had I eaten? Had they eaten? Or She had not eaten. They had not eaten. I had not eaten. You had not eaten. Past Perfect Continuous is used for an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time. At that time, he had been writing a novel for two months. When Mr. Mukherji came, to school in 1985, Mr. Anand had already been teaching there for five years. The method of forming a sentence of this tense is the same as that for‖ present perfect continuous in the affirmative, interrogative and negative. The only difference is that had is substituted for have and has, e.g., I had been eating. You had been eating. They had been eating. We had been eating. Or Had I been eating? Had you been eating? -Had we been eating? Or I had not been eating. You had not been eating. They had not been eating, etc. Past perfect tense in question formis used with an extension to make it an affirmative sentence, e.g., Had she been working regularly she would have completed the project yesterday. The Simple Future or Future Indefinite expresses simply future time, i.e. the time that has not conic vet, near or remote; as, He will come tomorrow.
Prizes will be distributed next week. In this tense, the verb is used in its original or present form. (1) In an affirmative sentence, will is added before the verb whatever be the number or person of the subject. e.g., I will eat. You will eat. They will eat. He will eat. (2) In a negative sentence, not is added after will of the affirmative sentence, e.g., I will not eat. You will not eat. They will not eat. He will not eat. (3) In an interrogative sentence of the simple future, the subject is placed between will and verb, e.g., Will I eat? Will you eat? Will they eat? Will he eat? The Future Continuous represents an action that will keep going on at some point in future time; as, He will be playing cricket tomorrow afternoon. I shall be writing the book then. Past Tense at a Glance In this tense, ing is added to the verb. (1) An affirmative sentence is formed by adding will before the verb, e.g., I will be eating. You will be eating. He will be eating. They will be eating. (2) A negative sentence is formed by inserting not between will and be of the affirmative sentence, e.g.. I will not be eating. He will not be eating. They will not be eating. You will not be eating, etc. (3) An interrogative sentence is formed by placing the subject between will and be, e.g., Will I be eating? Will they be eating? Will he be eating? Will you be eating‘? The Future Perfect This tense is used in two different senses: (a) to denote the completion of some event in future time; and (b) to denote the completion of some event in past time. (a) He will have reached home before the rain sets in. (The reaching of home will be completed before the setting in of rain.) (b) I shall have finished my work by then. In future perfect tense, the verb is used in its third form. (1) An affirmative sentence is formed by adding will have before the verb, e.g., I will have eaten. They will have eaten. He will have eaten. You will have eaten. (2) A negative sentence is formed by putting not between will and have, e.g., I will not have eaten (by then). He will not have eaten (by tomorrow), etc. Note: This form of the tense is rarely used. (3) An interrogative sentence of this tense is formed by placing the subject between will and have, e.g., Will they have eaten‘? Will he have eaten? Will you have eaten? Future Perfect Continuous indicates an action represented as being in progress over a period of time that will end in future; as, By next July, we shall have been living here for two years. When he gets his degree, he will have been studying in Oxford for four years. In this tense, ing is added to the verb. The sentences of this tense are normally of the affirmative type only. A sentence is formed by adding shall/will have been to the verb, e.g., I will have been eating. We shall have been eating. They will have been eating. Future Tense at a Glance
Voice (Active and Passive) Voice is that branch of grammar which studies the form that the verb takes in a sentence to determine the status of the subject and the object. Voice can be studied under the following headings: (1) Active Voice: A verb is said to be in the Active Voice when its subject acts or when the emphasis is on the doer or the subject. The active voice is so called because the person or thing denoted by the subject acts. Example Mohan sang a song. Here, the subject Mohan is acting. (2) Passive Voice : A verb is in the Passive Voice when the subject is being acted upon or when the emphasis is on the object or the work done. The passive voice is so called because the person or thing denoted by the subject that is not active but passive, and suffers or receives some action. Example A song was sung by Mohan. Here, the subject is being acted upon. Note: (i) Voice changes occur only in transitive verbs. (ii) The perfect continuous form of all the three tenses and future continuous cannot be changed into passive voice. Examples Present : He has been doing the work. (No change of voice) Past : He had been doing the work. (No change of voice) Future : He will have been doing the work. (No change of voice) Future Continuous : He will be doing the work. (No change of voice) The reason is that if the change of voice is done in these tenses, then the verb is to be used twice which is wrong. Example He has been doing the work. (Active) The work has been being done by him. (Passive) This is a wrong sentence as the verb is used twice. Similar is the case with the other sentences. Let us look at some more examples of active and passive voice. Active Passive Mohan has burnt the shop . The shop has been burnt by Mohan. People speak English all over the world. English is spoken all over the world. They built the bridge last year. The bridge was built last year. The boy beat the child. The child was beaten by the boy. From the above examples, it is clear that we use active voice when we are more interested in the doer or agent. And we use passive voice when we are more interested in the object of the action. As you will notice above, most passive voice sentences drop the agent or the doer either because it is not known or because it is understood and hence not needed or also because it is not important.
In order to convert active voice into passive voice, certain rules need to be observed. (1) First of all, the arrangement of the words in a sentence in the active voice is changed. Active Voice : Subject + Verb + Object Mohan read a book. Passive Voice: Object + helping verb + main verb + by + subject A book was read by Mohan. Thus, the subject of the active voice becomes the object of the passive voice. (2) Change of Pronoun a. When he as subject of active voice becomes object of the passive voice, it changes into him. Similarly, b. She becomes her c. We becomes us d. They becomes them e. I becomes me 3. Changes required under each tense I. Present Tense (a) Present Indefinite : Assertive sentence Here, we need to change the first formof the verb into the third formand add is/am/are before it, depending on the number and person of the subject in the active voice. The point becomes more clear from the following formula Active: S + V,(s, es) + O Passive: O + is/ am/ are + V, + by + S Examples 1. The boy makes toys. — Active Toys are made by the boy. — Passive 2. You vex me. – Active I am vexed by you. – Passive 3. She annoys him. – Active He is annoyed by her. – Passive Thus, you will notice that apart from following the first two rules, we have changed the verb from the first to the third form. We have also added is/am/are according to the nature of the object in the active voice which has become the subject of the passive voice. For transforming interrogative sentences under this tense, all you need to do is, put is/am/are before the subject (which was object in the active voice) in the passive voice. We can also use the following formula- Active- Do/ Does + S + V1+ O Passive- Is/ am/ are + O + V3 + by + S Example
Does she want a book? – Active Is a book wanted by her? – Passive Note: For interrogative sentences of the active voice beginning with who, the passive voice will be formed by changing who into by whom. Active- who + S + V,(s, es) + O Passive- by whom + is/ am/ are + V3? Example Who teaches you English? By whom are you taught English? (b) Present Continuous: Assertive sentences To get the passive voice, the verb is used in its third form and being is inserted between is/am/are and the verb. For the above point, we get the following formula Active- S + is/ am/ are + V1 ing + O Passive- O+ is/ am/ are + being + V3 + by + S Example I am eating an egg. – Active An egg is being eaten by me. – Passive In case of an interrogative sentence, is/am/are will be placed before the subject. Active- is/ am/ are + S + V1ing + O Passive- is/ am/ are + O + being + V3+ by + S Example Am I eating an egg? – Active Is an egg being eaten by me? – Passive (c) Present Perfect: Here, been is put between has/have and verb (third form) in a passive voice sentence. We get the following formula for the above point Active- S + has/ have + V3 + O Passive- O + has/ have + been + V, + by + S Example Sita has eaten the fruit. – Active The fruit has been eaten by Sita. – Passive Formula for Present Perfect InterrogativeActive- has/ have + S + V3 + O? Passive- has/ have + O + been + V3 + by + S Active- who + has/ have + V3 + O? Passive- by whom + O + been + V3 ? Examples Have you seen the play? – Active Has the play been seen by you? – Passive Who has written this letter? – Active By whom has this letter been written? – Passive
II. Past Tense The rules for transforming the past tense active voice sentences are the same as that for the present tense with necessary modifications. Formula for the past tenses are: (a) Past Indefinite Active- S + V2 + O Passive- O + was/ were +V3+ by + S Interrogative Active- did + S + V1 + O? Passive- was/were + O + V3+by + S? Examples I read the book. – Active The book was read by me. – Passive Did you write a letter? – Active Was a letter written by you? – Passive (b) Past Continuous Active- S + was/ were + V1ing + O Passive- O + was/ were + being + V3 + by + S Interrogative: Active- was/ were + S + V1ing + O? Passive- was/ were + 0 + being + V3 + by + S? Examples They were playing football. – Active Football was being played by them. – Passive Was he reading the newspaper? – Active Was the newspaper being read by him‘? – Passive (c) Past Perfect Active- S + had + V3 + by + S Passive- O + had + been + V3+ by +S Interrogative Active- had + S + V3 + O? Passive- had + O + been + V3 + by + S? Example I had read the book. – Active The book had been read by me. – Passive Had she bought new book? – Active Had new book been bought by her? – Passive III. Future Tense (a) Future Indefinite : Assertive sentence For transforming an active voice sentence under this tense into passive voice, the verb is used in its third form and be is inserted between will and the verb. The formula for this point will be Active- S + will/ shall + V1 + O Passive- O + will/ shall + be + V3 + by + S Interrogative
Active: will/ shall + S + V1 + O? Passive: will/ shall + O + be + V3 + by + S? Example I will write a book. – Active A book will be written by me. – Passive Will they wash clothes in the evening? – Active Will clothes be washed by them in the evening? – Passive In the case of an interrogative sentence, the change is the same for the active as for the passive, i.e. will is placed before the subject. Example Will I write a book? – Active Will a book be written by me? – Passive (b) Future Perfect In the passive voice, under this tense been is inserted between have and the verb. Active: S + will/ shall + have + V3 + O Passive: O + will/ shall + have + been + V3 + by + S Example I will have written a book. – Active A book will have been written by me. – Passive Interrogatives are obtained only by putting will shall before the subject.
English Language & Comprehension Skills Sentence (Part - 1) Language is the major means by which we communicate and interact with others. When we speak or write, we use words. These words are generally used in groups e.g.: A bad workman quarrels with his tools. A group of words arrange din a manner which makes a complete sense is called a Sentence. Based on meaning and sense, the sentence can be classified as : 1. Declarative or assertive 2. Imperative 3. Interrogative 4. Exclamatory Parts of Speech Words are classified into different kinds or groups called Parts of Speech according to their use and function in a sentence. They are eight in number-Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection.
Noun The Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing. The word thing includes (i) all objects that we can see, touch, hear, smell or taste, and (ii) something we can think of but cannot perceive through our senses. There are five different kinds of noun. They are : 1. Proper Noun 2. Common Noun 3. Collective Noun 4. Material Noun 5. Abstract Noun Kinds of Noun The following chart will make you familiar with the different kinds of noun : Noun Nature of Noun Examples Proper Noun It denotes a particular person, place or thing. Chander, Kolkata, India, the Ganges, the Gita, etc. Common Noun It is the name given to any and every person or thing of the same class or kind Table, glass, town, king, book, river, country, etc. Collective Noun It denotes a group or collection of similar individuals or things considered as one complete whole. Army, class, host, jury, mob, crowd, team, parliament, committee, family, fleet etc. Material Noun It denotes the matter or substance of Wood, clay, rubber, iron, silver, gold, cloth, etc. Abstract Noun It expresses quality, state or action. Truth, love, soul, mind, greatness, life, poverty, manhood, pleasure, pain, honesty, etc. Pronoun The repetition of a noun in a sentence or a set of sentences is really boring. So, Grammar prescribes that instead of repeating the noun, we may use a word (for that noun) called pronoun. This leads us to a precise definition of Pronoun. The Pronoun is a word that we use instead of a noun. Many people commit grammatical mistakes because they lack thorough knowledge regarding the use of pronouns. The following facts can be stated on the basis of the above definition: a. A pronoun must itself be something equivalent to a noun. b. As a rule, the pronoun should not be mentioned until the noun has been mentioned. c. A pronoun must be of the same number, gender and person as the noun it stands for.
Pronouns have numerous subclasses. Though there are several features that pronouns have in common with nouns, yet there are some features which distinguish them from nouns. They are as follows: a. They do not admit determiners; b. They often have an objective case; c. They often have person distinction; d. They often have overt gender contrast; e. Singular and plural forms are often not morphologically related. Kinds of Prnouns I. Personal Pronouns : A pronoun which is used instead of the name of a person is known as a Personal Pronoun. Examples: I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us.(First Person) Thou, thine, thy, thee. You, your, yours. (Second Person) He, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, they, their, theirs, them. (Third Person) II. Reflexive or Emphatic Pronouns : When self is added to my, your, him, her, it and selves to our, your, them, we get Compound Personal Pronouns. When the action done by the subject turns back (reflects) upon the subject, ‗self‘ is added to the pronoun and becomes a Reflexive or Emphatic pronoun. Examples 1. I hurt myself 2. He hurt himself. 3. They hurt themselves. III. Demonstrative Pronouns: The pronouns which are used to point out the objects which they refer to are called Demonstrative Pronouns. Examples: 1. This is a gift from my father. 2. These are merely excuses. 3. Mumbai mangoes are better than those of Bangalore. 4. That is the fort of Allahabad. IV. Indefinite Pronouns : All pronouns which refer to persons or things in a general way and do not refer to any particular person or thing are called Indefinite Pronouns. Examples: 1. Somebody has stolen my watch. 2. Few escaped unhurt.
3. Did you ask anybody to come? 4. Nobody was there to welcome her. V. Distributive Pronouns: Each, either, neither are called Distributive Pronouns because they refer to persons or things-one at a time. For this reason, they are always singular and thus followed by the verb in singular. Examples: 1. Each of these men received a reward. 2. Either of you can go. 3. Neither of the accusations is true. VI. Relative Pronouns: A Relative Pronoun refers or relates to some noun going before, which is called its Antecedent. Examples: 1. I met Hari who used to live here. 2. I have found the pen which I had lost. 3. Here is the book that you lent me. VII. Interrogative Pronouns: These pronouns are used to ask questions. Examples 1. Whose book is this? 2. What will all the neighbors say? 3. What do you prefer, tea or coffee? Note: Interrogative pronouns can also be used in asking indirect questions. Consider the following examples: 1. I asked who was speaking. 2. Tell me what you have done. 3. Say which you would like best. Adjective An Adjective is a word that qualifies or adds something to the meaning of a noun. 1. Madan is a good boy. (Boy of what kind?) 2. He gave me ten bananas. (How many bananas‘?) 3. We do not like that girl. (Which girl?) In sentence 1, good tells what kind of boy Madan is. In sentence 2, ten shows how many bananas he gave me. In sentence 3, that points out which girl is meant.
Some Facts About Adjectives and their Uses Adjectives can be used in two ways-attributively and predicatively. When an adjective is placed just before the noun, its use is Attributive, but when it is used after the noun or pronoun, the use is called Predicative. Examples i. This is a sweet mango. (Attributive) ii. This mango is sweet. (Predicative) iii. Fame is the perfume of heroic deeds. (Attributive) iv. The judge declared him guilty. (Predicative) v. It is a beautiful painting. (Attributive) vi. The painting is beautiful. (Predicative) vii. Sita is a pretty girl. (Attributive) viii. My daughter is pretty. (Predicative) ix. Each boy of the class was punished yesterday. x. There were only two poets. Each poet recited his poem. xi. Every man is expected to do his duty. xii. He comes to me every day. xiii. Every man in this world dies. xiv. India wants peace in every corner of the world. 4. (a) Oral means by word of mouth. (b) Verbal means concerned with words. Examples He sent mean oral, message. There is not much verbal difference between the two statements. Oral is the opposite of written. 5. (a) Either means one of the two or each of the two. (b) Neither is the negative of either. Examples i. You may buy either of these two chairs. (One of the two) ii. Either book will do. iii. There are shady trees on either side of the road. (Each) iv. I can speak on either side. v. He can write with either hand. vi. I can speak on neither side. vii. Neither of them could speak on the stage. viii. He can write with neither hand. ix. Neither of the two pens is costly. 6. (a) Sick means slight indisposition. (b) Ill means unwell, indisposed. Examples i. I am feeling sick.
ii. He has been seriously ill for the past ten days. Note: Sick and ill both express the idea of being in bad health, affected with disease etc., but sick is more commonly used than ill, which is somewhat formal (I am feeling sick. He is ill with the flu.) 7. (a) Enough is used with both singular and plural number. It conveys the sense of sufficiency. Examples i. There is enough sugar in the pot. ii. There are enough eggs in the basket. 8. (a) Only means alone of its or their kind; sole. (b) Nearest means close in distance, time or relation. It is the superlative of the adjective near. (c) Next expresses position. It means just before or after in time, space, degree or rank. Examples i. Sudha is the only daughter of her parents. ii. The nearest shopping complex from our house is two kilometres away. iii. How far is it to the next petrol pump? iv. The State Bank of India is the nearest bank. v. The next shop is mine. 9. (a) Later expresses late in time. (b) Latter means second in position or order. (c) Latest means most recent. (d) Last means final in position or order. Note: Later or latter are comparative degrees of late and latest or last are superlative degrees of late. Examples i. The train arrived an hour later than the scheduled time. ii. The latter position was better than the former. iii. What is the latest news‘? iv. He was the first to come and last to go Verb Verb is a word used to tell or assert something about some person or thing. There are three popular kinds of verbs Auxiliary Verb, Ordinary Verb and Verb of Incomplete Predication. The verb may tell us: 1. What a person or thing does; as Savita swims. The bulb lights. 2. What is done to a person or thing; as Mohan is punished.
3. What a person or thing is; as The dog is dead. There are some sentences in which the action passes over from the subject to the object. Verbs used in these sentences are called Transitive Verbs. These verbs are followed by an object. Examples 1. The boy picked the stone. 2. The child hugged the mother. 3. The student wrote a letter. In sentence t, the action denoted by the verb picked passes over from the doer or subject boy to the object stone. The verb picked is, therefore, a transitive verb. Most verbs we use are transitive verbs as they take an object. Intransitive Verbs are those denoting the action that does not pass over from the subject to the object. These verbs denote an action which does not pass over to an object or which expresses a state or being. These verbs are not followed by an object. Examples 1. The baby sleeps. 2. Sunil ran a long distance. 3. The table is in the office. In sentence 1, the action denoted by the verb sleeps, stops with the doer or subject baby and does not pass over to an object. The verb sleeps is, therefore, an intransitive verb. Verbs that are intransitive in their most common meanings include appear, come, fall, go, happen, matter, sleep. If a verb is not followed by an object, it cannot be made passive. Agreement of the Verb With the Subject: A Detailed Discussion An Introductory Note ‗Verb-Subject‘ agreement plays a very important role in English Grammar. Even those who enjoy a good command over the language, sometimes commit mistakes. In the following discussion, we have given sixteen rules that teach the verb-subject agreement. Rule 1: If two or more singular nouns are joined by and, the verb used will be plural. Examples i. He and I were going to the market. ii. Ram and Mohan are friends.
In the above sentences, ‘verb-subject’ agreement is as follows : Subject Verb He and I Were [Two singular nouns joined by ‘and’] [a plural verb] Ram and Mohan Are [Two singular nouns joined by ‘and’] [a plural verb] (iii) Verbs which derive their 2nd and 3rd forms by the addition of -d, -ed, or -t and without a change in the vowel; as: First form Second form Third form Walk Walked Walked Talk Talked Talked Prove Proved Proved Shape Shaped Shaped Wash Washed Washed Writhe Writhed Writhed Climb Climbed Climbed Deal Dealt Dealt Mean Meant Meant Spoil* Spoilt or-spoiled Spoilt or-spoiled Hear Heard Heard Burn Burnt Burnt Dwell Dwelt Dwelt (iv) Verbs that have a vowel change as well as the addition of a suffix; as First form Second form Third form Feel Felt Felt Kneel Knelt Knelt Bring Brought Brought Sell Sold Sold Can Could Could Beseech Besought Besought Seek Sought Sought Tell Told Told
Think Thought Thought (v) In some cases, the verbs retain their original identity in all the three forms. They end in -d or -t; as: First form Second form Third form Bet Bet Bet Burst Burst Burst Cast Cast Cast Cost Cost Cost Cut Cut Cut Hit Hit Hit Hurt Hurt Hurt Let Let Let Put Put Put Rid Rid Rid Set Set Set Shed Shed Shed Spread Spread Spread Shut Shut Shut Slot Slot Slot Split Split Split Thrust Thrust Thrust Note: There are no hard and fast rules by which one can make out, by looking at a verb, how it is going to change its form. Therefore, in order to be able to use verbs correctly in all their forms, it is essential to develop familiarity with them. This can be done by reading and if possible memorising the list of verbs, with their different forms. Adverb An Adverb is a word that qualifies (i) a verb; (ii) an adjective; (iii) another adverb; (iv) a preposition. Examples He runs fast. In this sentence, the word fast is an adverb because it qualifies the verb runs. She is quite an intelligent girl. In this sentence, the word quite is an adverb because it qualifies the adjective intelligent. She can run very fast. In this sentence, the word very is an adverb because it qualifies the adverb fast. The ship has sailed right round the world. In this sentence, the word right is an adverb qualifying the preposition round.
* Spoil takes-t as well as ed to form past tense and past participle. Some Important Facts About Adverbs An adverb can qualify not merely individual words, but an entire assertive sentence. In this case, it must stand first in the sentence. Examples Unfortunately, the thief was not caught. Evidently, you were much distressed at the news. Probably, you are mistaken. Luckily, I escaped unhurt. Certainly, he is wrong. We could rewrite these sentences in the following forms : It is unfortunate that the thief was not caught. It was evident that you were much distressed at the news. Note: (a) As a general rule, adverbs do not qualify nouns or pronouns. But an adverb qualifies a noun or pronoun in such a sentence; as : Even torture could not break his spirit. (Qualifying Noun) Only you can tell us the facts. (Qualifying Pronoun) (b) In the following examples, the adverb that precedes the noun does not qualify the noun, but some participle or adjective that is understood The then king = the king then reigning. The above account = the account given above. (c) In the following example, the adverb almost does not qualify the noun drunkard but the verb is : He is almost drunk. To say, he is an almost drunkard would be incorrect. Kinds of Adverbs According to their use, adverbs are subdivided into three classes : I. Simple II. Interrogative III. Relative I. Simple Adverbs : Simple adverbs are used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or an adverb. These can be distinguished from one another by their meanings. (a) Time (Which shows when) He will soon arrive. He was taken ill yesterday. He did this before, and you have done it since. (b) Place (Which shows where) We must rest here. He went there. The book is under the table. My house is near the market.
(c) Frequency (Which shows how often) He always stood by his master. He did this once, but he will not do it again. He often goes for a morning walk. (d) Manner, Quality or State (Which shows how or in what manner) She spoke loudly. He behaved foolishly. He did his work slowly. I worked honestly. (e) Quantity, Extent or Degree (Which shows how much or in what degree or to what extent) She is quite an intelligent girl. He is clever enough for me. She is a very beautiful girl. (f) Affirming or Denying He did not come after all. Examples Yes, no, not, yea, nay, not at all, by all means, etc. As pronouns save the repetition of a noun, these adverbs save the repetition of a sentence. (g) Reason I fell off my bicycle, hence the bruises. He therefore left office. II. Interrogative Adverbs: This is the name given to those adverbs that are used for asking questions. (a) Time When do you intend to pay him? How long will you remain here? (b) Place Whether are you going? Where did you stop? (c) Number/Frequency How often does he visit you? How mane persons attended the meeting? (d) Manner, Quality or State How are you today? (In what state of health) How did you solve the sums? (e) Quantity or Degree How far was the statement true? (to what extent) (f) Cause or Reason Why did you do this‘? (for what reason) Wherefore did she weep? Note: The adverb how is sometimes used in an exclamatory sense How nice of you to help me! What in the sense of quantity or degree is similarly used in an exclamatory sense : What a beautiful flower it is! III. Relative Adverbs: Relative adverbs are the same in form as interrogative adverbs, but instead of asking questions, they join two sentences together.
These adverbs are called relative for two reasons- (1) because they relate to some antecedent, understood or expressed; (2) because they are formed from relative pronouns. (a) The Antecedent understood : This is where we work. Let us know when you will leave. (where = the place where we work) (when = the time when you will leave) (b) The Antecedent expressed This is the place where we work. Let us know the time when you will leave.
English Language & Comprehension Skills Common Error 1. Articles 1. Articles: There are three articles in English—a, an and the. A and an are called indefinite article.The is the definite article. An article is placed before a noun. If there is an adjective before a noun, the article is placed before the adjective: a train, a fast train, an incident, an unusual incident Note: We can never use a singular count noun alone, that is, without a/an/the/my/some/any etc. 2. A/an: Singular count nouns take the indefinite article a/an with them: a ball an egg a dog an elephant Uncount nouns do not generally take an article with them. we do not generally say a milk a beauty a wisdom for milk, beauty, wisdom cannot be counted. 3. We use a with singular count nouns beginning with a consonant sound: a girl a map a university a union a one-sided affair a one-rupee note Note: That the words university, union, and one begin with a vowel but no a vowel sound. University and union begin with the yoo sound while one begins with the w sound. Well-known words which begin with a vowel but take a with them are: European uniform union unit universal usual useful eau-de-cologne 4. An: An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound: an umbrella an opportunity an honest boy an honorable person The letter h in honest and honourable is not sounded. Common words in English which begin with an unsounded h are: heir heiress honest honorary honourable hour hourly 5. In abbreviations, if consonants begin with a vowel sound, they take an before them: an M.P. an S.P. But if consonants begin with a consonant sound, they take a before them: a Ph.D. a B.Ed. 6. Note the use of a in the following phrases: a pity a shame a pleasure a noise a rage a nuisance
a headache a toothache a bad cold in a whisper in a low voice in a loud voice to be at a loss 7. The definite Article the: The, the definite article, is a weakended form of that. It is pronounced as (di:) when it preceded a vowel sound and as do before a consonant sound. In meaning also, it is weaker than that. Instead of pointing out, it defines, particularises or singles out: I have read the book you are talking of. (not any book but a particular book that is being referred to) The artists who came to seem me today are quite accomplished. (not any artists but the ones who came to see me today) 8. In the examples given in § 7, the book and the artists are particularised by two adjective clauses. In certain cases, a noun's being particular may be clear from the context and it may not have any defining expression with it. The is also prefixed to such a noun: Shut the door. (the door of the room in which we are sitting) He was brought before the Principal. (The Principal of the institution in which he was studying) The king pardoned him. (the king we are talking about at the moment) 9. If I am looking at the picture of a room, I can talk about the ceiling, the floor, because there is only one ceiling and one floor, but I cannot talk about the wall if there are more than one walls in the picture because I would not be talking about the only one. I can, however, talk about the left wall and the right wall because there is only one left wall and one right wall in the picture. 10. More about the: We use the definite article the 1. with superlatives and the words used in the superlative sense: the best student in the class the Chief Justice the PrimeMinister 2. when special emphasis almost equivalent to the use of the superlative is intended: He is the leader today. (the greatest leader) This is just the thing. (the right thing) This is the way to solve this problem. (the proper way). 3. even in comparative degrees when one of the two items is singled out in preference to the other: He is the moon, the world, (But not: He is the finer batsman than others. The correct form would be : He is a finer bats man than others.) 4. with things of which there is only one in our world, or things which are otherwise well known but do not begin with a capital letter: the sun, the moon, the world, the equator, the north, the east. 5. in place of possessive adjectives: I hit him on the head. (= his head) Disappointment stared him in the face.( = his face) 6. with common nouns when one noun is used to represent the whole class or species: The horse is a faithful animal. The lion is the king of animals.
7. with an adjective with a plural notion to indicate a class of persons: The rich should help the poor. (We can say: Rich men should help poor men But not: The rich men should help the poor men.×) 8. as an adverb in case of certain comparatives: The more we get, the more we want. The harder you work, the better it will be. 9. to suggest distribution: (= each) We can buy oranges by the dozen. Cloth is sold by the metre. Exercise Fill in the blanks with a, an or the where necessary: 1. —— more you read, —— more you know. 2. —— stone hit him on —— head. 3. —— fox is —— very clever animal. 4. Only —— rich can afford ——comforts of ——modern times. 5. I have —— elder brother and —— younger sister. —— sister is —— wiser of the two. 6. If you are looking for —— entertaining as well as educative magazine, this is —— magazine for you. 7. —— sun rises in — east and sets in —west. 8. India is a little to —— north of —— equator. 9. —— oranges are sold by —— dozen. 11. Articles with Proper Nouns 1. Proper nouns, as a rule, do not take articles with them: Shakespeare was a great playwright. (Shakespeare) Samudragupta was a great warrior. (Samudragupta) 2. But if a proper noun is used as a common noun, it may take with it some article: He is a good playwright but not a Shakespeare. (not as great a playwright as Shakespeare) Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India. (as great a playwright for India as Shakespeare is for England) 3. We need the definite article the with the names of: Rivers the Ganga, the Yamuna Seas and oceans the Red Sea, the Atlantic Ocean Mountain ranges the Alps, the Himalayas Holy books the Bible, the Ramcharit Manas Trains, ships the Himgiri Express, the Ashoka (the name of a ship). Newspapers and the Pioneer, magazines the Hindustan Times, the Filmfare, the portstar Well-known the Gateway of India, buildings the Red Fort, the Qutub Minar Countries (if their name contains a common noun) the U.S.A., the U.K. (In United States of America, States is a common noun.) Peoples, parties the English, the French, the Whigs The whole families the Khans, the Kapurs
2. Prepositions Prepositions of Time A number of prepositions may be used to denote time: fromMonday; after my return; during the night; till tomorrow; before the bell rings; a quarter to ten. In most cases, it is easy to decide which preposition to use. The following prepositions, however, need special attention. 1. At, on, in (a) At usually denotes a definite point of time but can also be used for indefinite periods: at 7 p.m.; at this moment; (Definite at midnight; point of time) at the end of the class; at night; at dawn; (indefinite at Durga Puja; at Diwali. periods) (b) On is used with days and dates: on Monday; on 1st May; on the annual day; on a May afternoon. (c) In is used with parts of the day, and with months, years, seasons: in the morning; in September; in 2004; in winter. (d) In is also used with the future tense to show the period in which an action will happen: in a week; in four hours. (5) In and within. In means at the end of; within means before the end of: I shall be back in a week. (when a week is over) I shall be back within a week. (before a week is over) 2. By By refers to a point of future time and denotes the latest time at which an action will be over: The competition will be over by 6 p.m. (It should be over before it is 6 p.m., but the latest time at which it can be over is 6 p.m.) They will have declared the result by tomorrow evening. 3. For For is used with periods of time to show the duration of an action. It is mostly used with perfect continuous tenses though it may be found with other tenses as well: This discussion has been going on for two hours. I have worked in this office for two years. For may sometimes be omitted also: I have been busy the whole morning.(for the whole morning) 4. Since Since marks the point of time at which an action began. It is used only if the action has continued till the time of speaking; hence it is found with perfect continuous tenses. Unlike for, it can never be ommitted: She has been teaching in this college since 2001. A cool breeze has been blowing since morning. 5. From From denotes the starting point of an action and is used in all cases except when the action has continued till the moment of speaking. It is almost invariably used with to or till:
The examination will be held from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m. He was the Chief Minister of the state from 1999 to 2002. 6. At, in (a) At has the idea of an exact point and is, therefore, used with houses, villages, small towns. In has the idea of a larger area and is used while speaking of bigger towns, states, countries, etc.: at Karol Bagh in New Delhi; at Ambala; in England; at the end; in the middle. (b) At conveys the idea of a general neighbourhood; in conveys the idea of something contained: We say at the table to take our lunch. Please wait for me at the Regal PVR. Turn left at the next crossing. There are two Pepsi bottles in the refrigerator. You will find the stapler in the drawer. 7. On, upon On is used while speaking of things at rest; upon is used with things in motion: The file is on the table. The dog sprang upon the table. 8. Above, over Both above and over mean higher than. Sometimes we can use either of them: The flags waved over our heads. The flags waved above our heads. But over can also mean coverning, or vertically above: My father put a blanket over me. There is a fan exactly over the table. 9. Below, under Both below and under mean lower than and sometimes we can use either of them. But under means vertically below. It also has the idea of contact: There was a beautiful lake below us in the valley. His shoes were lying under the table. She put the keys of the wardrobe under her pillow. 10. Into Into denotes movement towards the interior of something: He jumped into the well. One stream flows into another. Figuratively: We have entered into an agreement to export handicrafts to some European countries. 11. For For is used to denote direction when the verb shows the beginning of a movement: The children leaves for the school at 7 a.m. We shall soon set off for Mumbai. 12. Against
Against shows pressure or contact: He threw the goods against the wall. Prepositions of direction from. Most common among these are: from, off, out of: 13. From From is used with the point of departure: He brought these books from the market. He had already gone from home. 14. Out of It is the opposite of into. It means from the interior of: He took a few books out of the almirah. 3. Common Errors Section I—COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF NOUNS Number 1. Nouns having the Same Form in Singular as well as in Plural (a) Nouns expressing number: two hundred people; three dozen eggs; four score oranges. But note: scores of organes; hundreds of people. (b) Nouns in expressions like a ten-rupee note; a five-year old child; a five-kilometre walk. (c) Names of some animals: sheep, deer, swine. 2. Nouns used as Singular The following nouns are generally used in the singular: alphabet, bedding, clothing, furniture, information, luggage, machinery, offspring, poetry, scenery, physic etc.: 3. Nouns Plural in Form but used as Singular (a) Branches of learning: Mathematics, Physics, Mechanics, Statistics (b) Diseases: Mumps, measles (c) Games and sports: Billiards, draughts, gymnastics. (d) News, summons, innings, wages: 4. Nouns always used as Plural (a) Articles of dress: shoes, socks, trousers, pyjamas, shorts. But a pair of shoes is singular: Leather shoes are very costly in Russia. A pair of shoes is all I need. (b) Names of instruments: scissors, tongs, bellows, Spectacles, shears: These scissors are very sharp. My spectacles have been lost. (c) Other nouns like alms, annals, ashes, assets, intestines, thanks, proceeds, spirits, tidings, savings, belongings, contents, credentials, nuptials: The proceeds of this show are being donated to the National Defence Fund. 5. Nouns Singular in Form but used as Plural Cattle, gentry, peasantry, poultry, clergy: The cattle are grazing in the field. If the peasantry flourish, the country prospers. The gentry were found uncooperative. 6. Nouns with Two Plural Forms which Differ in Meaning
Singular Plural Brother Brothers (Sons of the same parents) Cloth Cloths (kinds or pieces of cloth) Clothes (garments) Genius Geniuses (persons of great talent) Genii (spirits) Index Indexes (tables of contents) Indices (signs used in Algebra) 7. A pronoun must have the same gender, number and person as the noun it represents: The girl has deposited her books at the counter. She is now coming to the library. Mohan's son has lost his watch. He needs a new one. 8. When a personal pronoun is used as the object of a verb or a preposition, it is placed in the objective case: I accused him of theft. (objects of a Let me do it. verb) How long did you wait for me? (object of a preposition) Besides him, many others voted in my favour (object of a preposition) 9. When a pronoun is used as the complement of the verb to be, it is placed in the nominative case: It is I. In informal conversation, they often say it is me, but if the pronoun is followed by a clause, nominative case must be used: It is I who scored the goal. 10. The pronouns governed by than and as can be placed either in the nominative case or in the objective case depending upon the meaning to be conveyed: I love you more than he. (than he loves you) I love you more than him. (than I love him) You helped me as much as she. (as much as she helped me) You helped me as much as her. (as much as you helped her) 11. Comparison of Adjective The comparative degree of an adjective is used to compare two things, the superlative to compare more than two things. If no comparison is implied, we use positive degree: Mayur is a tall boy. (No comparison, hence the positive degree of the adjective tall) Mayur is taller than Shubham. (Comparison between two persons, hence the comparative degree of the adjective tall) Mayur is the tallest boy in the class. (Comparison among all the boys of the class, hence the superlative degree of the adjective tall) Note: Comparative degree is usually followed by than; superlative degree takes with it the definite article the. See the examples given above. 12. Double comparatives and superlatives must not be used. Incorrect. He is more cleverer than his cousin. Correct. He is cleverer than his cousin. Incorrect. Mount Everest is the most highest peak in the world. Correct. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world. 13. Other Mercury is heavier than any other metal. Mercury is the heaviest of all metals. In the first sentence, mercury is to be excluded from the metals, with which it is being compared. In the
second sentence it is one of them. It would be incorrect to say: Mercury is heavier than any metal. Mercury is the heaviest of all other metals. 14. Comparatives ending in or, superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, are followed by to and not by than. We do not use with them more also: He is senior to me by three years. My pen is superior to yours. 15. Very, much (i) Very qualifies adjectives or adverbs in the positive degree, much qualifies them in the comparative degree: She is a very intelligent girl. Today she is looking much weaker than usual. She runs very fast. She runs much faster than Soumya. (ii) Very is used with present participles when they are used as adjective; much is used to modify past participles when they have their full verbal function: The scenery is very charming. The foreign policy of the government was much criticised in Parliament. However, if a past participle is used purly as an adjective, it is modified by very and not by much: I felt very tired. I am very satisfied to see your work. Other such participle adjectives are: pleased, surprised, delighted, grieved, pained, annoyed, experienced, contented, concerned, disappointed, interested,worried, bored, shocked, astonished, excited, etc. (iii) Very is used with an adjective in the superlative degree for emphasis: He is the very best student in the class. Much is used with an adjective in the superlative degree to intensify the meaning: You are much the brightest (by the brightest) student in the class. 16. Too (i) Too denotes a higher degree than is desirable, natural, proper or expected. It should never be used instead of very or much. It is incorrect to say: 'The water is too cold'. Instead, one should say: 'The water is very cold'. (ii) Too preceded by only has a positive sense: He is only too glad to meet his friends. (He is extremely glad to meet his friends.) (iii) Too much is generally used before a noun: He take too much sugar in his tea. You take too much care of your health. (iv) Too means also: Have you been to the party, too? This, too, is very important. In speech, we use too more often than also. 17. Enough Enough means sufficient and is always used in the positive sense. It is placed after the adjective or adverb but before the noun:
He was tall enough to reach the shelf. I ran fast enough to overtake her. There isn't enough room to sit down. 18. Wrong use or Omission of Prepositions Make a careful note of the following wrong use of prepositions: A. Where a preposition should not have been used Incorrect Correct 1. I have ordered for dinner. I have ordered dinner. 2. The younger brother resembles to the elder. The younger brother resembles the elder. 3. I want the police to investigate into the case. I want the police to investigate the case. 4. He deeply loved with me. He deeply loved me. 5. I reached at Delhi only this morning. I reached Delhi only this morning. 6. The teacher has not yet entered into the classroom. The teacher has not yet entered the classroom. 7. Why have you picked up a quarrel with him? Why have you picked a quarrel with him? B. Where a preposition should not have been omitted Incorrect Correct 1. He will not listen what you say. He will not listen to what you say. 2. Have you disposed the old furniture you wanted to? Have you disposed of the old furniture you wanted to? 3. Your fault does not admit any excuse. Your fault does not admit of any excuse. 4. Could you lend me your pen to write a letter? Could you lend me your pen to write a letter with? C. Where a wrong preposition has been used Incorrect Correct 1. I could not understand why he was angry upon me. I could not understand why he was angry with me. 2. Our examination begins from 1st May. Our examination begins on 1st May. 3. You are required to sign with ink. You are required to sign in ink. 4. I enquired from him where he lived. I enquired of him where he lived D. Make a careful study of the following sentences in which the use of the infinitive is erroneous and should be replaced by a preposition followed by a gerund or a noun: Incorrect Correct 1. He insisted to leave immediately. He insisted on leaving immediately. 2. You should refrain to tell lies. You should refrain from telling lies. 3. The policeman prevented him to park The policeman prevented him from his car parking his car
there. there 4. The invigilator prohibited the student to copy. The invigilator prohibited the student from copying. 19. That. That should not be used before interrogative adverbs or pronouns in indirect narration: Incorrect. He asked me that when he could come to see me. Correct. He asked me when he could come to see me. 20. Since. Since shows 'from which time'. It is preceded by present perfect tense (sometimes present indefinite tense) and followed by past indefinite tense: Three months have passed since he last wrote to me. It is about a month since I met her. 21. Unless, if. Unless means if not. It should not be confused with if: Incorrect. Unless he does not apologies, he should not be allowed to sit in the class. Correct. Unless he apologies, he should not be allowed to sit in the class. 22. Lest. Lest means 'in order that ..... not'. It always takes should with it: Cover your head properly lest you should catch cold. Note. The clause beginning with lest should not be negative. Incorrect. Let us catch a taxi lest we should not get late. Correct. Let us catch a taxi lest we should get late. MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS INCLUDING AMBIGUITIES AND INDIANISMS Incorrect Correct 1. I hope you are keeping good health. I hope you are enjoying good health. 2. These days he is enjoying bad health. These days he is keeping bad health. 3. Many homes are lying vacant. Many houses are lying vacant 4. Are you going to your house straight from the office? Are you going home straight from the office? 5. The roads of this town are narrow. The streets of this town are narrow. 6. Let us sit in the shadow of the tree. Let us in the shade of the tree. 7. How many individuals were present in the meeting? How many persons were present in the meeting? 8. He made an interesting lecture. He delivered an interesting lecture. 9. My leg is paining. I am feeling pain in my leg. 10. The captain of our team made four goals The captain of our team scored four goals.
Government by the people
Democracy The whole mass of air surrounding the earth Atmosphere
One who is not sure of the existence of God
Agnostic A medicine which prevents infection by killing germs Antiseptic
One who does something not professionally but for pleasure
Amateur A statement open to more than one interpretation Ambiguous
One who makes an official examination of accounts
Auditor Marrying more than one wife or more than one husband at a time Polygamy
The science that studies plants
Botany The science which studies natural processes of living things Biology
People working together in the same office or department
Colleagues The state of remaining unmarried Celibacy
The action of bringing into completion
Consummation To give one's authority to another Delegate
Study of the relation of living things to environment
Ecology The action of looking within or into one's own mind Introspection
One incapable of being tired
Indefatigable A letter, poem, etc. whose auther is unknown Anonymous
Work for which no salary is paid
Honorary One who looks at the bright side of things Optimist
One who cannot read or write
Illiterate A game or battle in which neither party wins Draw
Holding established opinions
Orthodox Hater of women Misogynist
The study of the origin and physical and cultural development of manking
Anthropology The science which studies the crust of the earth Geology
The science which studies animals
Zoology Happening at one and the same time Simultaneous
Murder or murderer of oneself
Suicide Lasting only for a very short while Temporary
Capable of being seen through
Transparent The first speech delivered by a person Maiden
The art practised by statesmen and ambassadors
Diplomacy One who walks on foot Pedestrian
One who lives on others
Parasite One who speaks for others Spokesperson
One who spends very little
Miser One who prossesses several talents or gifts Versatile
One who eats vegatables only
Vegetarian A thing that is fit to be eaten Edible
A statement absolutely clear
Explicit A widespread disease affecting many people at the same time Epidemic
A trade that is prohibited by law
Gala day A desire that cannot be represed Illicit
A method that cannot be imitated
Irrespressible Remarks which do not really apply to the subject under discussion Inimitable
A story that can hardly be believed
Incredible A comparison that is out of place Inapt
That which cannot be satisfied
Insatiable A remedy which never fails Infallible
A thing that cannot be seen with human eyes
Invisible One who is very easily made angry Irritable
An ordinary and common place remark
Platitude A sum paid to a man for a piece of work Remuneration
The act of violating the sanctity or destroying the property of a sacred place
Sacrilege To make up one's mind and change it quickly Vacillate
A person with a long experience of any occupation
Veteran A place where clothes are kept Wardrobe
A state of complete continence on the part of a woman
Virginity A man who has too much enthusiasm for his own religion and hates other Fanatic
religions
One who makes calculations connected with insurance
Actuary A country, etc. which is very distant Remote
To send out of one's native country
Exile A person chosen by parties who have a controversy to settle their differences Mediator
Notice of death, especially in a newspaper
Obituary Notice of death, especially in a newspaper Obituary
Opinion contrary to accepted doctrines
Heresy Great clapping and cheering Applause
Exclusive possession of the trade in some commodity
Monopoly Sole right to make and sell some invention Patent
English Language & Comprehension Skills Sentence Correction (MCQ -6) Directions: Each of the following question is in the form of a sentence with four underlined portions marked a, b, c and d, respectively. Choose the marked portion that carries errors. If no error required then your answer is 5. 1. A tapestry consists of a foundation weave, a called the wrap, which across are passed b several colored threads, called wefts, c forming decorative patterns. d 2. The fossil remains of much extinct a mammals have been found in the tar pits b c or Rancho Brea in Los Angles. d 3. Chemical engineering is based on the a principles of physics, chemists, and b c mathematics. d 1b 2a 3c
English Language & Comprehension Skills Foreign Words and Phrases 1. Ab initio (Latin) From the beginning. 2. Aborigine (Latin) Native, any of the earliest known inhabitants of a certain region. 3. Actionnaire (French) Shareholder. 4. Actualite (French) Real existence; appropriateness. 5. Ad hoc (Latin) For the special purpose. 6. Ad interim (Latin) In the meantime; temporary. 7. Ad libitum (Latin) As one pleases. 8. Ad referendum (Latin) For further consideration. 9. Ad valorem (Latin) According to value. 10. A Dio (Italian) To God; Addio!Adieu! 11. Agamemnon (Greek) The leader of the Greeks in the Trojan war, king of Mycenae. 12. Aide (French) An assistant, a helper, a mate. 13. Air noble (French) An air of distinction. 14. Ajax (Latin, Greek) The Greek hero next to Achilles in the Trojan war. 15. Alectryon (Greek) A cock. 16. Allah it Allah (Arabian) There is no God but the God the Moslem war cry. 17. Alopecia (Latin, Greek) Fox mange : a skin disease, which destroys the hair; baldness. 18. Allure (French) Mien, gait, air. 19. Alpeen (Irish) A cudgel. 20. Alter ego (Latin) One‘s second self, a very close friend, a representative. 21. Affair d‘amour (French) A love affair. 22. A‘la mode (French) According to the custom; in fashion. 23. Alma Mater (Latin) Benign mother; A term applied by students to the school, college or university where they have been educated. 24. Anno Christi (Latin) In the year of Christ. 25. Anno Dontini (Latin) In the year of Christ. 26. Ante Meridiem (Latin) Before noon. 27. Ars longa, vita brevis (Latin) Art is long, life is short. 28. Au contraire (Latin) On the contrary. 29. Au revoir (French) Adieu, until we meet again.
30. Auto (Spanish) An act, a drama. 31. Bacchus (Latin, Greek) The god of wine. 32. Basta (Italian) Enough ! No more ! 33. Bastide (French) A French country house. 34. Beau garcon (French) A handsome man. 35. Beau jour (French) Fine day, good times. 36. Beaux-arts (French) The fine arts. 37. Beneficiare (French) The person receiving benctits. 38. Bene qui latiut bene vixit (Latin) He has lived\ell who has lived obscure. 39. Billet-doux (French) A love letter. 40. Bonn fide (Latin) In good faith. 41. Bon hoinie (French) Good nature. 42. Bonjour (French) Good day; good morning. 43. Bon voyage (French) A good journey to you. 44. Boutique (French) A shop. tradesman‘s stock. 45. Bourgeoisee (French) The social class between the aristocracy and the working class; middle class. 46. Bravo (Italian) Well done; splendid. 47. Cadre (French) A frame, a scheme; a list of officers. 48. Cafe (French) Coffee. 49. Camaraderie (French) Comrade; Friendly fellowship. 50. Carpe diem (Latin) Enjoy the present day. 51. Cara sposa (Italian) Dear wife. 52. Chef (French) A cook in charge of a kitchen; head cook 53. Chesara‘ Sara‘ (Italian) What will be will be. 54. Cognito, ergo sum (Latin) I think, therefore, I am. 55. Coiffeur (French) Hair dresser. 56. Contra (Latin) Against. 57. Corpus (Latin) The body of a man or animal, especially a dead body. 58. Coup d‘etat (French) Sudden decisive blow in politics. 59. Creme (French) Cream.
60. Creme de la creme (French) Cream of the cream; the very best. 61. Danke, Schoon (German) Many thanks. 62. De bonne grace (French) With good grace. 63. De facto (Latin) In fact, actually. 64. De jure (Latin) In the law; by right. 65. Dei gratin (Latin) By the grace of God. 66. Deluxe (French) Luxurious. 67. Dennode (French) Out of fashion. 68. Desagrement (French) Something disagreeable. 69. Detenu (French) A prisoner. 70. Deus ex inachina (Latin) A character or event brought artificially into the plot of a story or drama to settle an involved situation. 71. Distrait (French) Absent minded. 72. Dramatis personae (Latin) Characters in a drama or a play. 73. Donna e‘ mobile (Italian) Woman is changeable. 74. Duce (Italian) A leader. 75. Ecce! (Latin) Behold! 76. Edition deluxe (French) A splendid and expensive edition of a book. 77. Elegant (French) A person of fashion. 78. Elite (French) The best part. 79. En famille (French) With one‘s family; at home; in an informal way. 80. En masse (French) In a group, universally. 81. En prince (French) In princely style. 82. En queue (French) In a string or line. 83. En rapport (French) In agreement, in accord with. 84. En route (French) On the way. 85. Entente (French) An understanding; agreement. 86. Entrepreneur (French) A business man. 87. En rills (French) In town, ‗not at home‘. 88. Espirit de corps (French) Group spirit, sense of pride. 89. Errare est liumaru in (Latin) To err is human. 90. Estancia (Spanish) A mansion.
91. Ethos (Greek) Permanent character; in literature and art, chief characteristics of a work as affecting the intellectual andmoral faculties, as opposed to pathos which appeals to the emotions. 92. Etoile (French) Star. 93. Et tu, Brute ! (Latin) You too,Brutus! (Caesar‘s exclamation, when he sawhismuch loved Brutus amongst the murderers.) 94. Euge! (Latin, Greek) Well done! 95. Eureka (Meureka) (Greek) I have found it. 96. Excelsior (Latin) Higher; (erroneously) upwards. 97. Exceptio confirmat (probat) The exception proves the rule. regular (Latin) 98. Ex officio (Latin) By virtue of his office. 99. Ex post facto (Latin) After the deed is done; done or made after wards. 100. Extra (Latin) Beyond, outside the scope of. 101. Fade (French) To become less distinct. 102. Fait accompli (French) A thing already done. 103. Fenome (French) Woman, wife. 104. Festa (Italian) A festival. 105. Flair (French) Aptitude; a natural talent or ability. 106. Gallant (French) Gay, elegant, attentive to ladies. 107. Gens de letters (French) Literaryman. 108. Grand (French) Great. 109. Heil (German) Flail! 110. Homo sapiens (Latin) Mankind; human beings. III. Hotel (French) A hotel, a mansion. 112. Id est (Latin) That is. 113. Ibidem (Latin) In the same place, thing or case. 114. In camera (Latin) In the chamber of the judge. 115. In toto (Latin) In the whole; entirely. 116. Impasse (French) A deadlock. 117. In memoriam (Latin) In the memory of. 118. In petto (Italian) Secretly, not revealed. 119. Inter alia (Latin) Among other things.
120. Inter alios (Latin) Among the persons. 121. Kinder (German) Children. 122. L‘allegro (Italian) The cheerful man. 123. Libra (Latin) A pound; a unit of weight. 124. Lingua franca (Italian) Mixed language. 125. Litterateur (French) A man of letters. 126. Locus Standi (Latin) A right to interfere. 127. Magnum opus (Latin) A great work. 128. Malentendu (French) Misunderstood; poorly conceived. 129. Matinee (French) Reception or entertainment held in the afternoon. 130. Milieu (French) Surroundings; environment. 131. Modus (Latin) Manner, mode. 132. Modus operandi (Latin) Manner of working. 133. Monsieur (French) Sir, Mr. 134. Monstre scare (French) A popular public figure who is considered above criticism. 135. Mon and (French) My friend. 136. Nil (Latin) Nothing. 137. Non (Latin) Not. 138. Octroi (French) Duties paid at the gate of a city. 139. Oninia vincist labor (Latin) Labour overcomes all things. 140. Opera (Latin) Plural of opus. Musical works of a composer numbered in order of composition or publication. 141. Oil (French) yes. 142. Par excellence (French) Eminently, beyond comparison. 143. Par example (Latin) For example. 144. Persona grata (Latin) A person who is acceptable or welcome. 145. Postmortem (Latin) Happening done or made after death. 146. Post (Latin) After, e.g., afternoon. 147. Pater (Latin) Father. 148. Potage (French) Soup. 149. Prima facie (Latin) On first view. 150. Quantum (Latin) Quantity, or amount.
151. Quasi (Latin) As if, seemingly. 152. Regime (French) Form of government. 153. Resume (French) An abstract or summary. 154. R.S.V.P. (Reponds si‘1 Reply, if you please, an answer will oblige. vous plait) (French) 155. Suns souci (French) Without care. 156. Sine die (Latin) Without a day being appointed. 157. Status quo (Latin) The existing state of existing affair. 158. Status quoante (Latin) The state of affairs existing prior to a given event. 159. Terra incognita (Latin) An unknown country. 160. Tete-a-tete (French) A private or intimate conversation between two people. 161. Ultra vires (Latin) Beyond one‘s powers. 162. Viamedia (Latin) Amiddle course. 163. Vice versa (Latin) The order or relation being reversed, conversely. 164. Vis-a-vis (French) Opposite; face to face. 165. Viva voce (Latin) By word of mouth; orally. 166. Vive la (French) Long live!
English Language & Comprehension Skills Idioms & Phrases Back out — to withdraw from a promise, contract : I felt grieved when he backed out of his promise to help me. Back up — to support; to sustain : He backed up his report with relevant statistics. Bear upon — to be relevant to : This argument does not bear upon the subject under discussion. Blow up — to explode : The mine blew up and all the labourers working inside were killed. — to reprimand or scold : If you continue to be negligent, the teacher will blow you up. Break down — of a car; a piece of machinery; to go wrong so that it will not function : The car broke down on our way to Mumbai. — to collapse; to succumb to uncontrollable weeping : She broke down completely on hearing the news of her husband's death. — to succumb to a nervous collapse through overwork or worry : He worked so hard that his health broke down near the examination. Break off — to end; to discontinue; to desist : We had to break off our conversation when he arrived. She broke off in the middle of the story. She did not like his nature and broke off the engagement. Break up — to disperse; to dissolve : The college will break up for the Puja holidays on 25th October. The meeting will break up after the President has addressed the audience. Bring up — to rear : Those brought up in adversity are able to cope with life better. Call forth — to provoke : The minister's views on the disinvestgment policy of the government called forth a good deal of bitter criticism. Call out — to shout : I called out to him but he disappeared in the dark. — to announce by calling or shouting : The Manager called out to the peon that he was being immediately fired. Call upon — to order; to require : I was unfortunately called upon to give evidence against him. Carry on — to continue : If you carry on working hard, your business will soon flourish. — to manage : He carried on his business so well that he soon amassed a huge fortune. Cast away — to throw aside : You must cast away all your apprehensions and accept the offer. Catch up with — to overtake; to draw level : Last week I had to stay late at the office to catch up with some pending files. Come off — to take place : The prize distribution came off on Tuesday last. — to turn out successful : His speeches at the conference always came off beautifully. Cry down — to deprecate; to make little of : You must not unneccessarily cry down the conduct of others. Cry out against — to complain loudly against : The opposition parties cried out against the fast pace of the globalisation of the Indian economy. Cut out — designed for : Your were cut out to be a lecturer in a college. Drop in — to visit casually : On my way to the college, I dropped in at Mira's place. Drop out — As the race progressed, many children dropped out. Fall back — to recede; to retreat : On seeing the armed guards, the civilians fell back. Fall down — from a higher position to a lower one : The branch gave way and he fell down into the canal.
Fall off — to withdraw; to drop off : Some of our subscribers have fallen off. Friends fall off in adversity. Fall under — to come under : This colony does not fall under my jurisdiction. Get along — to prosper; to progress; to proceed : Well, doctor, how is your patient getting along? It is simply impossible to get along with him. Get on with — to live pleasantly together; to progress : How are you getting on with your studies? Get into — to be involved in : It is easy to get into scandals but hard to come out unscathed. Give in — to surrender; to yield : I gave into her repeated requests and accepted the offer. Give over — not to do any longer : It is time you gave over pretending that you have access to the Prime Minister. Go after — to follow; to pursue : The policeman went after the thief but the latter managed to escape in the dark of the night. Go down — to be accepted : The terrorist attack onWTC will go down in history as one of the worst acts of terrorism. Go without — to remain without : he is so poor that sometimes he has to go without food. Go by — to follow : I am sorry to disappoint you but we have to go by the rules. — to elapse (used of time) : Months have gone by but I have not called upon him. Hang about — to loiter near a place : Last evening I say your friend hanging about your house. Hang upon — to depend upon : The success of any venture hangs upon the seriousness with which it is undertaken. Hold out — to endure; to refuse to yield : How long can you hold out against starvation? — to continue : Sugar stocks are not likely to hold out very long. — to offer : She held out her hand to the Prince. Hold to — abide by : Whatever resistance there might be, I will hold to my decision. Keep off — to ward off : His stern looks keep off the flatterers. — to maintain : They have been trying to keep up their standard of living though there has been a considerable decline in their income. Keep up with — to keep pace with : You read too fast; I cannot keep up with you. Knock out — to win by hitting the opponent insensible in a boxing bout : The challenger was knocked out in two minutes. Lay By — to put away for future use : She has laid by five thousand rupees to celebrate her marriage anniversary. Lay in — to store for future use : Anticipating scarcity of foodgrains, they laid in a good store of provisions. Let down — to fail a friend : Won't I feel grieved if my own friends let me down? Let into — to suffer to enter; to admit : Despite his pleadings, they did not let him into the meeting. I shall let no one into my secrets. Let out — to lease on hire : In my immediate neighbourhood, there is a decent house to let out. — to loosen : Let us let out the dog for a while. Look about — to study one's surroundings : The thief looked about himself before entering the house. Look for — to search for : The old woman was looking for her spectacles. Look up — to search for and find : Please look up this word in the dictionary. — to have an upward tendency (said of prices): The price of sugar is loking up these days. Make off with — to run away with : The servant made off with the master's watch. Makeover — to transfer : He has made over the building to his son.
Make up — to supply what is deficient : You must work hard during the Dussehra holidays and try to make up your deficiency in English. — to invent or fabricate : She made up a story to get rid of the visitor. — to reconcile : They have made up their quarrel and are now getting on quite well. Pass away — to die : His sister passed away in the early hours of the morning. Pass by — to disregard; to omit : He did not invite me to his birthday. It appears that he passed me by. — to go alongside of : You passed by my house the day before yesterday. Pick out — to select or choose : The teacher picked out the best student from the class. Pick up — to recover or regain health after an illness: He has become so weak that he will take two months to pick up. Play upon — (a musical instrument) : She played upon the harmonium and sang a melodious song. — to take advantage of : The blackmailer played upon her love for her husband. Pull down — to demolish; to destory : The old house was pulled down to create space for multi-storey flats. Pull up — to take to task : The teacher was always pulling him up for his bad handwriting. Put off — to postpone : We had to put off the wedding till the war was over. — to lay aside : He put off his shoes before entering the temple. — to turn one aside from a purpose or demand: I approached him for some help but he put me off with mere words. Put into — to drag into : Don't put me into the argument. Put out — to extinguish : It is time to put out the light and go to sleep. — to perturb, to annoy : I was put out on hearing that I had incurred heavy losses in the recent business transactions. Run away — to flee : The little girl took a necklace and ran away. Run away with — to steal and depart with : The cashier ran away with twenty thousand rupees. Run off — to break off from control : The dog broke the chain and ran off. Run over — to drive over : The car ran over the pedestrian as he was crossing the road. — to flow over : The tant is running over. Run through — to squander or waste : It took him only a few months to run through all the money his father had left him. — to read quickly : I will just run through this lesson and tell you what it is all about. — to pierce : The needle ran through her finger when she was stitching her shirt. See into — to attend to : You can set right the situation if you see to it at an early date. Set in — to begin : As soon as rains set in, it beecomes pleasant. Set up — to establish; to open a new business : He is soon going to set up as a financier. Speak for — to recommend somebody or to urge somebody's claims : If you speak form to the Manager, I am sure he will look at my case favourably. Speak on — to deliver a lecture on : This evening I am going to speak on the changing concepts of morality in various ages. Stand off — to keep at a distance : Would you please stand off? I brook no interference in my way of work. Strike for — to stop work for some reason : The labourers have struck for higher wages. Take after — to resemble : The younger sister takes after the elder one. Take for — to form an impression about somebody's identity : I was taken for a South Indian. Take in — to deceive : She thinks her oily tongue can take everybody in.
Take to — to become addicted to : He took to gambling and drinking at a very early age. — to form a liking for : Of late she has taken to painting. Tell against — to prove adverse to; to go against : I am sure these facts are going to tell against your case. Throw about — to fling here and there : to leave in disorder : The child threw his books about and ran off to play. Throw away — to lose through carelessness : You have thrown away a golden opportunity. Turn against — to become hostile to : I shall not give up my principles even if the whole world turns against me. Turn aside — to deviate; to digress : Never turn aside from the path of virtue.
English Language & Comprehension Skills Narration (Direct and Indirect) In our speech, we often speak to the other person of some thing that was said to us by somebody. In other words, we often report a speech whether ours or someone else‘s. We do this in two ways. We either report the speech exactly as we had heard or said it without making any change. This is called Direct Speech. Example: The girl said to her mother, ―My plate is empty.‖ Or we may change the sentence that we had heard or said without changing its meaning and then report it. This is called Indirect Speech. Example: The girl said to her mother that her plate was empty. In the first example, the first part of the sentence which is before the comma, is referred to as reporting verb and the part which is within inverted commas is called the reported speech. Note: While transforming from direct into indirect, we have made several changes in the sentence above : 1. We have removed the comma in the indirect sentence and put that in its place. 2. We have removed the inverted commas of the reported speech. 3. We have changed the my of the reported speech into her. 4. We have not used any capital letter in between the sentence unlike in the direct form where the reported speech always begins with a capital letter. Now, in order to bring about these changes while converting from direct into indirect or vice-versa, there are several important but simple rules that need to be observed. They are : 1. Changes in Tense and Verb: While changing from direct to indirect we have to make different changes regarding tenses, verbs or helping verb. A short list is given below to have a look on those changes:
Change of Tenses Direct Indirect Present Indefinite Past Indefinite Present Continuous Past Continuous Present Perfect Past Perfect Present Perfect Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Past Indefinite Past Perfect Past Continuous Past Perfect Continuous Past Perfect No change Past Perfect Continuous No change (a) If the reporting verb, i.e. the main verb in the first part of the sentence before comma is in the present or the future tense, the tense of the verbs in the reported speech will not change. Examples: Direct : Mummy says, ―I shall write a letter.‖ Indirect : Mummy says that she will write a letter. (b) If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the tense of the verbs in the reported speech will be changed into their corresponding past tense. Examples: Direct : The boy said to his friend. ―I write everyday.‖ (Present Indefinite) Indirect : The boy said to his friend that he wrote everyday. (Past Indefinite) Direct : The boy said to the teacher, ―I am going there everyday.‖ (Present Continuous) Indirect : The boy said to the teacher that he was going there everyday. (Past Continuous) (a) If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the simple past In the reported speech may become the past perfect in the Indirect. Examples: Direct : He said, ―The horse died in the night.‖ (Simple Past) Indirect : He said that the horse had died in the night. (Past Perfect) Direct : He said, ―The man came at six.‖ (Simple Past) Indirect : He said that the man had come at six. (Past Perfect) (b) If the reporting verb is in the past tense, the past continuous in the reported speech changes into the past perfect continuous. Examples
Direct : He said, ―The man was coming.‖ (Past Continuous) Indirect : He said that the man had been coming. (Past Perfect Continuous) Direct : He said, ―Rain was falling yesterday.‖ (Past Continuous) Indirect : He said that rain had been failing the previous day. (Past Perfect Continuous) 3. Change of person: The persons of the pronouns and of the verbs In the reported speech undergo changes when converted Into indirect form. Thus : (a) First person pronouns in the direct reporter speech change according to the subject of the reporting verb. The other changes are given in the table below : Direct Indirect Ram said I Ram said that he “ we “ they “ my “ his Direct : He says, ―I am going to Delhi. Indirect : He says that he is going to Delhi. Direct : Mummy says, ―I will have to go.‖` Indirect : Mummy says that she will have to go. (b) Second person pronouns change according to the noun or pronoun coming after the reporting verbs. Second person changes to third, if there is no mention of second person in the reporting verb part, so : Direct Indirect You He Your His/Her You (Plural) They Your (Plural) Their You (Object) Him/Her You (Object) Them Yours (object) Theirs But if there ismention of you (second person) in the direct speech, you in the indirect speech remains unchanged. Direct : Ram said to you, ―You are a good boy.‖ Indirect : Ram said to you that you were a good boy. So : Direct Indirect You You You (Plural) You Your Your
Your (Plural) Your You (Object) You (Object) Examples: Direct : I said to Mohan, ―You will have to read.‖ Indirect : I said to Mohan that he would have to read. Direct : Ram said to you, ―You are wrong.‖ Indirect : Ram said to you that you were wrong. (c) Third person pronouns of the direct speech remain unchanged when converted to indirect. Examples: Direct : Sita said to me, ―He will be defeated.‖ Indirect : Sita said to me that he would be defeated. Direct : She said, ―He has come.‖ Indirect : She said that he had come, 4. Said to : If the reporting verb said to is followed by an object, it Is changed into told while converting it into indirect speech. Examples: Direct : She said to her mother, ―I have done my work.‖ Indirect : She told her mother that she had done her work. Direct : He said to me, ―There is no more water.‖ Indirect : He told me that there was no more water. Note: If there ismention of first person in the reporting verb part, then second person in the direct (reported) speech changes to first person., e.g., Direct : Ram said to me, ―You are a good boy.‖ Indirect : Ram told me that I was a good boy. Direct Indirect You (Singular) I You (Plural) We Your (Singular) My Your (Plural) Our You (Object, Singular) Me You (Object, Plural) Us 5. If the reported speech has two actions which are both in the past continuous tense, its tense will not change while converting into indirect speech.
Example: Direct : She said, ―The cat was running and the dog was chasing it.‖ Indirect : She said that the cat was running and the dog was chasing it. Similarly, if the reported speech is in the past tense and indicates time or period, its tense will not change. Example: Direct : She said, ―I worked in Delhi for two years.‖ Indirect : She said that she worked in Delhi for two years. 6. Must and need not (a) In some cases, must and need not are used in place of have to. Examples: Direct : lie said, ―I must go now.‖ Indirect : He said that he had to go then. Direct : He said, ―I need not go.‖ Indirect : He said that he will not have to go. (b) Must is used in place of shall have to when it expresses necessity or compulsion. Examples: Direct : He said, ―I must finish this book on Monday.‖ Indirect : He said that he would have to finish that book on Monday. Direct : He said, ―I need not write this essay.‖ Indirect : He said that he would not have to write that essay. (b) Must sometimes indicates an order or a command. Note: But in some sentences when must indicates some kind of advice or suggestion and compulsion; in those sentences must remains must. Example: Direct : The policeman said to us, ―You must not cross the road against the red light.‖ Indirect : The policeman told us that we must not cross the road against the red light. 7. In the case of interrogative sentences, the following rules need to be observed while changing into Indirect. (a) Said to is changed into asked. It can also be changed into enquired or demanded depending on the nature of the sentence. (b) If the question in the reported speech begins with a helping verb, i.e. is, am, are, was, were, do, does, did, may,, might, can, could, will, would, must, etc., the inverted commas are replaced by if or whether.
(c) If the question starts with who, whose, when, where, what, which, why, how, no conjunction is used in place of the inverted commas. Examples: Direct : He said to me, ―Where are you going?‖ Indirect : He asked me where I was going. Direct : He said to me, ―What are you doing?‖ Indirect : He asked me what I was doing. 8. Imperative sentences: (a) In the imperative sentence, the sense of order, command, advice, request, entreaty, warning, etc. are conveyed. So, said to changes into ordered, requested, advised, commanded, warned, forbade, etc. depending on the nature of the sentence. (b) Inverted commas (― ―) are replaced by to. (c) In the sentences of negative imperative, don‘t or do not is substituted by not to. (d) If the imperative sentence starts with let and expresses some proposal or suggestion, said to should be changed into proposed to, or suggested to. Examples: Direct : The master said to the servant, ―Post the letter at once.‖ Indirect : The master ordered the servant to post the letter at once. Direct : I said to my son, ―Work hard for a better tomorrow.‖ Indirect : I advised my son to work hard for a better tomorrow. 9. Some more rules i. Said to is changed into wished. (In the case of Good morning, Good noon, Good afternoon Good evening, etc.) ii. Said to is changed into bade. (In case of Good night, Good bye, Farewell, etc.) iii. If the sentence expresses some desire (i.e. starts with would that, that if, etc.), said to is changed into wished. iv. If the sentence expresses some wish or prayer (i.e. starts with May - -! or May God —!), said to is changed into wished or prayed. v. If an exclamatory sentence expresses sorrow, grief or pain, said to is changed to exclaimed with sorrow that or exclaimed with grief that, etc. vi. Said to is changed to exclaimed with joy that or exclaimed joyfully that, etc., if an exclamatory sentence expresses joy. vii. Said to is changed to applauded saying/telling, calling out that, etc. (In case of exclamatory sentences expressing approval
Examples: Direct : He said to me, ―Good morning.‖ Indirect : He wished me good morning. Direct : The boy said, ―If I could win this game.‖ Indirect : The boy wished that he could win that game. Direct : She said to him, ―May God grant you success in the examination.‖ Indirect : She prayed that God might grant him success in the examination. English Language & Comprehension Skills Sentence (Part - 2) The Conjunction A word that is used to join words or phrases or sentences is called a Conjunction. Examples i. God made the country and man made the town. ii. She must work hard, or she will fail. iii. Three and three make six. iv. Madan and Sonu are brothers. In (i) and (ii), the conjunctions join two sentences. In (iii) and (iv), the conjunctions join two words only. Some Facts about Conjunctions 1. A conjunction is never connected with an object. 2. A conjunction never qualifies a word. Classes of Conjunctions Conjunctions are sub-divided into two main classes (i) Co-ordinating Conjunctions join words, phrases or clauses of co-ordinate (of equal) rank. He is guilty as well as you. (ii) Subordinating Conjunctions join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (that is, to a clause of higher rank).
Principal
Conjunction
Subordinate
I will read that book
if
you recommend it. (i) Coordinating Conjunctions are of four kinds (a) Cumulative or copulative which merely add one statement or fact to another; as, He is not only honest, but also hard working. We carved not a line, and raised not a stone. Cumulative conjunctions are- and, both and, as well as, not only but also. (b) Adversative conjunctions which express opposition or contrast between two statements; as. He is sad but hopeful. Adversative conjunctions as but, whereas, while, only, and still.
(c) Disjunctive or Alternative which express a choice between two alternatives; as, Work hard, else you will repent. Either he is mad or he feigns madness. Disjunctives are either.... or, neither.... nor, or, else. (d) Illative which express an inference; as, He will die someday, for all men are mortal. (ii) Subordinating Conjunctions may be classified according to their meaning, as follows : 1. Of Time : When, whenever, while, as, before, ere, after, since, until, till. Examples Ram has not phoned since he went to Delhi. She returned home after he had gone. 2. Of Place: Where, wherever, whence, whether. Examples You can go wherever you like. Sita found her frock where she had left it. 3. Of Cause or Reason : Because, since, as, that. Examples I am glad that you like it. He will pass the examination because he has worked hard. 4. Of Purpose : That (in order that), lest. Examples We cat that we may live. He worked hard lest he should fail in the examination. 5. Of Result or Consequence: That. Examples Mina behaved in such a manner that all disliked her. He was so tired that he could scarcely stand. 6. Of Condition : If unless, whether. Examples Sita will dance if Reema dances. You cannot succeed unless you work hard. 7. Of Comparison : As, than. Examples Hail is as intelligent as Shyam.
Madan is more intelligent than Manoj. 8. Extent or Manner : As. Examples Men will reap as they sow. You may do as you please. By Tense, we understand the correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time. Tense shows (a) the time of an action (b) its degree of completeness. The verb may tell us: 1. That an action is done at the present time, e.g., I see the blue sky. 2. That an action was done in the past time, e.g., He saw the blue sky. 3. That an action will be done in the future time, e.g., He will see the blue sky. 4. That an action was done at some past time, viewed as future (‗uture in the past), e.g., He said that he would be sixteen in three weeks‘ time. A verb, then, has three main times or tenses, viz. the Present, the Past and the Future. To each tense, there are four different forms : Simple which denotes present, past or future time in its simplest form : ‗I play‘, ‗I played‘, ‗I shall play‘. The action (in present, past or future time) is mentioned simply, without anything being said about the completeness or incompleteness of the action. Continuous which denotes that the event (in present,. past or future time) is still continuing or not yet completed : ‗I ant reading‘, I was reading‘, ‗I shall be reading‘. Perfect which denotes that the event (in present, past or future time) is in a completed or perfect state : ‗I have played‘, `I had played‘, `I shall have played‘. Perfect Continuous which combines the meanings of the two preceding forms, ‗I have been reading‘, ‗I had been reading‘, ‗I shall have been reading‘. The Present Continuous is used to express an action going on at the time of speaking, e.g., The boys are flying kites. He is playing cricket. I am reading a book. (a) It also sometimes expresses habit or custom; as, He is attending college very regularly these days. (b) For a temporary action which may not be actually happening at the time of speaking; as, I am reading David Copperfield. (but I am not reading it at this moment). (c) For an action that is planned or arranged to take place in the near future; as, I ant going to my father tomorrow. She is going to write a book. The Present Perfect invariably connects a completed event in one sense or the other with the present time. e.g., I have lived twenty years in Lucknow. (that is, I ant living there still and I began to live there twenty years ago.) I have passed my examination; I passed it two years ago. He has been to London; he went there in 1948. The present perfect denotes an action completed at the time of speaking; as, I have solved all the sums.
He has visited all the Indian temples. She has read most of Scott‘s novels. The verb in this tense is used in its third form. (1) An affirmative sentence of the present perfect tense is formed a. by adding has before the verb if the subject is in the singular number, e.g., He has eaten. It has eaten. Ram has eaten. b. by adding have before the verb if the subject is in the plural number or in the singular number of only the first and the second person, e.g., I have eaten. They have eaten. You have eaten. The children have eaten. (2) A negative sentence of the present perfect tense is formed by simply inserting not between has or have and verb, e.g., She has not eaten. I have not eaten. They have not eaten, etc. (3) An interrogative sentence of the present perfect tense is formed by putting the subject between has or have and verb, e.g., Have you eaten? Has she eaten‘? Have I eaten? Have they eaten‘? Present Perfect Continuous is used for an action which began sometime in the past and is still continuing, e.g., He has been sleeping for five hours (and is still sleeping). I have been doing this for several months. I have been writing this book for four years. This tense is sometimes used for an action already finished. In such cases, the continuity of the activity is emphasized as an explanation of something, e.g., Why are your clothes so wet? I have been watering the garden. Present ‘Tense at a Glance Under this tense, the verb Is used in the first form with ing added to It. (1) An affirmative sentence of the present perfect continuous is formed by adding have been or has been to the verb according to the number or person of the subject e.g., I have been eating. You have been eating. He has been eating. (2) A negative sentence of this tense is formed by inserting not between has/have and been, e.g., I have not been eating. You have not been eating. He has not been eating. (3) An interrogative sentence of this tense is formed by interchanging has/have and the subject. e.g., Have I been eating‘? Have they been eating? Have you been eating? Has he been eating? The Simple Past or Past Indefinite is used to denote an action in the past; e.g., My father died yesterday. He left office at 5.30 p.m. She lived in Delhi for 10 years. Babur founded the Mughal Empire in India. It also denotes a habitual action in the past, e.g., We studied and planned for years. She always carried a bag. The verb in this tense is used in its second or past form. (1) In an affirmative sentence, the form of the verb remains the same whatever the number or person of the subject, e.g., I ate. She ate. They ate. You ate. (2) In a negative sentence of the simple past, did not is added to the verb and the verb used in its original or present form, e.g., I did not eat. She did not eat. They did not eat. You did not eat.
(3) In an interrogative sentence of the simple past, the subject is placed between did and the verb. The verb, like in the negative, is used in its original or present form, e.g., Did you eat? Did they eat? Did I eat? Did she eat‘? The Past Continuous expresses an action going on at some time in the past; e.g., When she came into my room. I was studying. When Rajan called upon his friend, he was singing. It was getting dark. The method for making each continuous sentences is the same as that for making present continuous in the affirmative, interrogative and negative. The only difference is that was will be substituted for is/am and were for are, e.g., I was eating. You were eating. She was eating. They were eating. Or Was I eating? Were you eating? Was she eating? Were they eating? Or I was not eating. She was not eating. They were not eating. You were not eating. The Past Perfect is used whenever we wish to say that an action had been completed before another was commenced. The verb expressing the previous action is put into the past perfect tense. The verb expressing the subsequent action is put into the simple past. (a) Previous Action Subsequent Action (Past Perfect) (Simple Past). He had been ill for two days when the doctor was sent for. He had seen many foreign cities before he returned home. (b) Subsequent Action Previous Action The sheep fled in great for a wolf had entered haste the field. The ship was sunk by a storm which had suddenly sprung up. The past perfect ought never to be used except to show the priority of one past event over another. The past perfect is formed by the same method as the present perfect tense in the affirmative, interrogative and negative. The only difference is that had is substituted for has and have, e.g., She had eaten. I had eaten. They had eaten. We had eaten. Or Had they eaten? Had you eaten? Had I eaten? Had they eaten? Or She had not eaten. They had not eaten. I had not eaten. You had not eaten. Past Perfect Continuous is used for an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time. At that time, he had been writing a novel for two months. When Mr. Mukherji came, to school in 1985, Mr. Anand had already been teaching there for five years. The method of forming a sentence of this tense is the same as that for‖ present perfect continuous in the affirmative, interrogative and negative. The only difference is that had is substituted for have and has, e.g., I had been eating. You had been eating. They had been eating. We had been eating. Or Had I been eating? Had you been eating? -Had we been eating? Or I had not been eating. You had not been eating. They had not been eating, etc. Past perfect tense in question formis used with an extension to make it an affirmative sentence, e.g., Had she been working regularly she would have completed the project yesterday. The Simple Future or Future Indefinite expresses simply future time, i.e. the time that has not conic vet, near or remote; as, He will come tomorrow.
Prizes will be distributed next week. In this tense, the verb is used in its original or present form. (1) In an affirmative sentence, will is added before the verb whatever be the number or person of the subject. e.g., I will eat. You will eat. They will eat. He will eat. (2) In a negative sentence, not is added after will of the affirmative sentence, e.g., I will not eat. You will not eat. They will not eat. He will not eat. (3) In an interrogative sentence of the simple future, the subject is placed between will and verb, e.g., Will I eat? Will you eat? Will they eat? Will he eat? The Future Continuous represents an action that will keep going on at some point in future time; as, He will be playing cricket tomorrow afternoon. I shall be writing the book then. Past Tense at a Glance In this tense, ing is added to the verb. (1) An affirmative sentence is formed by adding will before the verb, e.g., I will be eating. You will be eating. He will be eating. They will be eating. (2) A negative sentence is formed by inserting not between will and be of the affirmative sentence, e.g.. I will not be eating. He will not be eating. They will not be eating. You will not be eating, etc. (3) An interrogative sentence is formed by placing the subject between will and be, e.g., Will I be eating? Will they be eating? Will he be eating? Will you be eating‘? The Future Perfect This tense is used in two different senses: (a) to denote the completion of some event in future time; and (b) to denote the completion of some event in past time. (a) He will have reached home before the rain sets in. (The reaching of home will be completed before the setting in of rain.) (b) I shall have finished my work by then. In future perfect tense, the verb is used in its third form. (1) An affirmative sentence is formed by adding will have before the verb, e.g., I will have eaten. They will have eaten. He will have eaten. You will have eaten. (2) A negative sentence is formed by putting not between will and have, e.g., I will not have eaten (by then). He will not have eaten (by tomorrow), etc. Note: This form of the tense is rarely used. (3) An interrogative sentence of this tense is formed by placing the subject between will and have, e.g., Will they have eaten‘? Will he have eaten? Will you have eaten? Future Perfect Continuous indicates an action represented as being in progress over a period of time that will end in future; as, By next July, we shall have been living here for two years. When he gets his degree, he will have been studying in Oxford for four years. In this tense, ing is added to the verb. The sentences of this tense are normally of the affirmative type only. A sentence is formed by adding shall/will have been to the verb, e.g., I will have been eating. We shall have been eating. They will have been eating. Future Tense at a Glance
Voice (Active and Passive) Voice is that branch of grammar which studies the form that the verb takes in a sentence to determine the status of the subject and the object. Voice can be studied under the following headings: (1) Active Voice: A verb is said to be in the Active Voice when its subject acts or when the emphasis is on the doer or the subject. The active voice is so called because the person or thing denoted by the subject acts. Example Mohan sang a song. Here, the subject Mohan is acting. (2) Passive Voice : A verb is in the Passive Voice when the subject is being acted upon or when the emphasis is on the object or the work done. The passive voice is so called because the person or thing denoted by the subject that is not active but passive, and suffers or receives some action. Example A song was sung by Mohan. Here, the subject is being acted upon. Note: (i) Voice changes occur only in transitive verbs. (ii) The perfect continuous form of all the three tenses and future continuous cannot be changed into passive voice. Examples Present : He has been doing the work. (No change of voice) Past : He had been doing the work. (No change of voice) Future : He will have been doing the work. (No change of voice) Future Continuous : He will be doing the work. (No change of voice) The reason is that if the change of voice is done in these tenses, then the verb is to be used twice which is wrong. Example He has been doing the work. (Active) The work has been being done by him. (Passive) This is a wrong sentence as the verb is used twice. Similar is the case with the other sentences. Let us look at some more examples of active and passive voice. Active Passive Mohan has burnt the shop . The shop has been burnt by Mohan. People speak English all over the world. English is spoken all over the world. They built the bridge last year. The bridge was built last year. The boy beat the child. The child was beaten by the boy. From the above examples, it is clear that we use active voice when we are more interested in the doer or agent. And we use passive voice when we are more interested in the object of the action. As you will notice above, most passive voice sentences drop the agent or the doer either because it is not known or because it is understood and hence not needed or also because it is not important.
In order to convert active voice into passive voice, certain rules need to be observed. (1) First of all, the arrangement of the words in a sentence in the active voice is changed. Active Voice : Subject + Verb + Object Mohan read a book. Passive Voice: Object + helping verb + main verb + by + subject A book was read by Mohan. Thus, the subject of the active voice becomes the object of the passive voice. (2) Change of Pronoun a. When he as subject of active voice becomes object of the passive voice, it changes into him. Similarly, b. She becomes her c. We becomes us d. They becomes them e. I becomes me 3. Changes required under each tense I. Present Tense (a) Present Indefinite : Assertive sentence Here, we need to change the first formof the verb into the third formand add is/am/are before it, depending on the number and person of the subject in the active voice. The point becomes more clear from the following formula Active: S + V,(s, es) + O Passive: O + is/ am/ are + V, + by + S Examples 1. The boy makes toys. — Active Toys are made by the boy. — Passive 2. You vex me. – Active I am vexed by you. – Passive 3. She annoys him. – Active He is annoyed by her. – Passive Thus, you will notice that apart from following the first two rules, we have changed the verb from the first to the third form. We have also added is/am/are according to the nature of the object in the active voice which has become the subject of the passive voice. For transforming interrogative sentences under this tense, all you need to do is, put is/am/are before the subject (which was object in the active voice) in the passive voice. We can also use the following formula- Active- Do/ Does + S + V1+ O Passive- Is/ am/ are + O + V3 + by + S Example
Does she want a book? – Active Is a book wanted by her? – Passive Note: For interrogative sentences of the active voice beginning with who, the passive voice will be formed by changing who into by whom. Active- who + S + V,(s, es) + O Passive- by whom + is/ am/ are + V3? Example Who teaches you English? By whom are you taught English? (b) Present Continuous: Assertive sentences To get the passive voice, the verb is used in its third form and being is inserted between is/am/are and the verb. For the above point, we get the following formula Active- S + is/ am/ are + V1 ing + O Passive- O+ is/ am/ are + being + V3 + by + S Example I am eating an egg. – Active An egg is being eaten by me. – Passive In case of an interrogative sentence, is/am/are will be placed before the subject. Active- is/ am/ are + S + V1ing + O Passive- is/ am/ are + O + being + V3+ by + S Example Am I eating an egg? – Active Is an egg being eaten by me? – Passive (c) Present Perfect: Here, been is put between has/have and verb (third form) in a passive voice sentence. We get the following formula for the above point Active- S + has/ have + V3 + O Passive- O + has/ have + been + V, + by + S Example Sita has eaten the fruit. – Active The fruit has been eaten by Sita. – Passive Formula for Present Perfect InterrogativeActive- has/ have + S + V3 + O? Passive- has/ have + O + been + V3 + by + S Active- who + has/ have + V3 + O? Passive- by whom + O + been + V3 ? Examples Have you seen the play? – Active Has the play been seen by you? – Passive Who has written this letter? – Active By whom has this letter been written? – Passive
II. Past Tense The rules for transforming the past tense active voice sentences are the same as that for the present tense with necessary modifications. Formula for the past tenses are: (a) Past Indefinite Active- S + V2 + O Passive- O + was/ were +V3+ by + S Interrogative Active- did + S + V1 + O? Passive- was/were + O + V3+by + S? Examples I read the book. – Active The book was read by me. – Passive Did you write a letter? – Active Was a letter written by you? – Passive (b) Past Continuous Active- S + was/ were + V1ing + O Passive- O + was/ were + being + V3 + by + S Interrogative: Active- was/ were + S + V1ing + O? Passive- was/ were + 0 + being + V3 + by + S? Examples They were playing football. – Active Football was being played by them. – Passive Was he reading the newspaper? – Active Was the newspaper being read by him‘? – Passive (c) Past Perfect Active- S + had + V3 + by + S Passive- O + had + been + V3+ by +S Interrogative Active- had + S + V3 + O? Passive- had + O + been + V3 + by + S? Example I had read the book. – Active The book had been read by me. – Passive Had she bought new book? – Active Had new book been bought by her? – Passive III. Future Tense (a) Future Indefinite : Assertive sentence For transforming an active voice sentence under this tense into passive voice, the verb is used in its third form and be is inserted between will and the verb. The formula for this point will be Active- S + will/ shall + V1 + O Passive- O + will/ shall + be + V3 + by + S Interrogative
Active: will/ shall + S + V1 + O? Passive: will/ shall + O + be + V3 + by + S? Example I will write a book. – Active A book will be written by me. – Passive Will they wash clothes in the evening? – Active Will clothes be washed by them in the evening? – Passive In the case of an interrogative sentence, the change is the same for the active as for the passive, i.e. will is placed before the subject. Example Will I write a book? – Active Will a book be written by me? – Passive (b) Future Perfect In the passive voice, under this tense been is inserted between have and the verb. Active: S + will/ shall + have + V3 + O Passive: O + will/ shall + have + been + V3 + by + S Example I will have written a book. – Active A book will have been written by me. – Passive Interrogatives are obtained only by putting will shall before the subject.
English Language & Comprehension Skills Sentence (Part - 1) Language is the major means by which we communicate and interact with others. When we speak or write, we use words. These words are generally used in groups e.g.: A bad workman quarrels with his tools. A group of words arrange din a manner which makes a complete sense is called a Sentence. Based on meaning and sense, the sentence can be classified as : 1. Declarative or assertive 2. Imperative 3. Interrogative 4. Exclamatory Parts of Speech Words are classified into different kinds or groups called Parts of Speech according to their use and function in a sentence. They are eight in number-Noun, Pronoun, Adjective, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction and Interjection.
Noun The Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing. The word thing includes (i) all objects that we can see, touch, hear, smell or taste, and (ii) something we can think of but cannot perceive through our senses. There are five different kinds of noun. They are : 1. Proper Noun 2. Common Noun 3. Collective Noun 4. Material Noun 5. Abstract Noun Kinds of Noun The following chart will make you familiar with the different kinds of noun : Noun Nature of Noun Examples Proper Noun It denotes a particular person, place or thing. Chander, Kolkata, India, the Ganges, the Gita, etc. Common Noun It is the name given to any and every person or thing of the same class or kind Table, glass, town, king, book, river, country, etc. Collective Noun It denotes a group or collection of similar individuals or things considered as one complete whole. Army, class, host, jury, mob, crowd, team, parliament, committee, family, fleet etc. Material Noun It denotes the matter or substance of Wood, clay, rubber, iron, silver, gold, cloth, etc. Abstract Noun It expresses quality, state or action. Truth, love, soul, mind, greatness, life, poverty, manhood, pleasure, pain, honesty, etc. Pronoun The repetition of a noun in a sentence or a set of sentences is really boring. So, Grammar prescribes that instead of repeating the noun, we may use a word (for that noun) called pronoun. This leads us to a precise definition of Pronoun. The Pronoun is a word that we use instead of a noun. Many people commit grammatical mistakes because they lack thorough knowledge regarding the use of pronouns. The following facts can be stated on the basis of the above definition: a. A pronoun must itself be something equivalent to a noun. b. As a rule, the pronoun should not be mentioned until the noun has been mentioned. c. A pronoun must be of the same number, gender and person as the noun it stands for.
Pronouns have numerous subclasses. Though there are several features that pronouns have in common with nouns, yet there are some features which distinguish them from nouns. They are as follows: a. They do not admit determiners; b. They often have an objective case; c. They often have person distinction; d. They often have overt gender contrast; e. Singular and plural forms are often not morphologically related. Kinds of Prnouns I. Personal Pronouns : A pronoun which is used instead of the name of a person is known as a Personal Pronoun. Examples: I, my, mine, me, we, our, ours, us.(First Person) Thou, thine, thy, thee. You, your, yours. (Second Person) He, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its, they, their, theirs, them. (Third Person) II. Reflexive or Emphatic Pronouns : When self is added to my, your, him, her, it and selves to our, your, them, we get Compound Personal Pronouns. When the action done by the subject turns back (reflects) upon the subject, ‗self‘ is added to the pronoun and becomes a Reflexive or Emphatic pronoun. Examples 1. I hurt myself 2. He hurt himself. 3. They hurt themselves. III. Demonstrative Pronouns: The pronouns which are used to point out the objects which they refer to are called Demonstrative Pronouns. Examples: 1. This is a gift from my father. 2. These are merely excuses. 3. Mumbai mangoes are better than those of Bangalore. 4. That is the fort of Allahabad. IV. Indefinite Pronouns : All pronouns which refer to persons or things in a general way and do not refer to any particular person or thing are called Indefinite Pronouns. Examples: 1. Somebody has stolen my watch. 2. Few escaped unhurt.
3. Did you ask anybody to come? 4. Nobody was there to welcome her. V. Distributive Pronouns: Each, either, neither are called Distributive Pronouns because they refer to persons or things-one at a time. For this reason, they are always singular and thus followed by the verb in singular. Examples: 1. Each of these men received a reward. 2. Either of you can go. 3. Neither of the accusations is true. VI. Relative Pronouns: A Relative Pronoun refers or relates to some noun going before, which is called its Antecedent. Examples: 1. I met Hari who used to live here. 2. I have found the pen which I had lost. 3. Here is the book that you lent me. VII. Interrogative Pronouns: These pronouns are used to ask questions. Examples 1. Whose book is this? 2. What will all the neighbors say? 3. What do you prefer, tea or coffee? Note: Interrogative pronouns can also be used in asking indirect questions. Consider the following examples: 1. I asked who was speaking. 2. Tell me what you have done. 3. Say which you would like best. Adjective An Adjective is a word that qualifies or adds something to the meaning of a noun. 1. Madan is a good boy. (Boy of what kind?) 2. He gave me ten bananas. (How many bananas‘?) 3. We do not like that girl. (Which girl?) In sentence 1, good tells what kind of boy Madan is. In sentence 2, ten shows how many bananas he gave me. In sentence 3, that points out which girl is meant.
Some Facts About Adjectives and their Uses Adjectives can be used in two ways-attributively and predicatively. When an adjective is placed just before the noun, its use is Attributive, but when it is used after the noun or pronoun, the use is called Predicative. Examples i. This is a sweet mango. (Attributive) ii. This mango is sweet. (Predicative) iii. Fame is the perfume of heroic deeds. (Attributive) iv. The judge declared him guilty. (Predicative) v. It is a beautiful painting. (Attributive) vi. The painting is beautiful. (Predicative) vii. Sita is a pretty girl. (Attributive) viii. My daughter is pretty. (Predicative) ix. Each boy of the class was punished yesterday. x. There were only two poets. Each poet recited his poem. xi. Every man is expected to do his duty. xii. He comes to me every day. xiii. Every man in this world dies. xiv. India wants peace in every corner of the world. 4. (a) Oral means by word of mouth. (b) Verbal means concerned with words. Examples He sent mean oral, message. There is not much verbal difference between the two statements. Oral is the opposite of written. 5. (a) Either means one of the two or each of the two. (b) Neither is the negative of either. Examples i. You may buy either of these two chairs. (One of the two) ii. Either book will do. iii. There are shady trees on either side of the road. (Each) iv. I can speak on either side. v. He can write with either hand. vi. I can speak on neither side. vii. Neither of them could speak on the stage. viii. He can write with neither hand. ix. Neither of the two pens is costly. 6. (a) Sick means slight indisposition. (b) Ill means unwell, indisposed. Examples i. I am feeling sick.
ii. He has been seriously ill for the past ten days. Note: Sick and ill both express the idea of being in bad health, affected with disease etc., but sick is more commonly used than ill, which is somewhat formal (I am feeling sick. He is ill with the flu.) 7. (a) Enough is used with both singular and plural number. It conveys the sense of sufficiency. Examples i. There is enough sugar in the pot. ii. There are enough eggs in the basket. 8. (a) Only means alone of its or their kind; sole. (b) Nearest means close in distance, time or relation. It is the superlative of the adjective near. (c) Next expresses position. It means just before or after in time, space, degree or rank. Examples i. Sudha is the only daughter of her parents. ii. The nearest shopping complex from our house is two kilometres away. iii. How far is it to the next petrol pump? iv. The State Bank of India is the nearest bank. v. The next shop is mine. 9. (a) Later expresses late in time. (b) Latter means second in position or order. (c) Latest means most recent. (d) Last means final in position or order. Note: Later or latter are comparative degrees of late and latest or last are superlative degrees of late. Examples i. The train arrived an hour later than the scheduled time. ii. The latter position was better than the former. iii. What is the latest news‘? iv. He was the first to come and last to go Verb Verb is a word used to tell or assert something about some person or thing. There are three popular kinds of verbs Auxiliary Verb, Ordinary Verb and Verb of Incomplete Predication. The verb may tell us: 1. What a person or thing does; as Savita swims. The bulb lights. 2. What is done to a person or thing; as Mohan is punished.
3. What a person or thing is; as The dog is dead. There are some sentences in which the action passes over from the subject to the object. Verbs used in these sentences are called Transitive Verbs. These verbs are followed by an object. Examples 1. The boy picked the stone. 2. The child hugged the mother. 3. The student wrote a letter. In sentence t, the action denoted by the verb picked passes over from the doer or subject boy to the object stone. The verb picked is, therefore, a transitive verb. Most verbs we use are transitive verbs as they take an object. Intransitive Verbs are those denoting the action that does not pass over from the subject to the object. These verbs denote an action which does not pass over to an object or which expresses a state or being. These verbs are not followed by an object. Examples 1. The baby sleeps. 2. Sunil ran a long distance. 3. The table is in the office. In sentence 1, the action denoted by the verb sleeps, stops with the doer or subject baby and does not pass over to an object. The verb sleeps is, therefore, an intransitive verb. Verbs that are intransitive in their most common meanings include appear, come, fall, go, happen, matter, sleep. If a verb is not followed by an object, it cannot be made passive. Agreement of the Verb With the Subject: A Detailed Discussion An Introductory Note ‗Verb-Subject‘ agreement plays a very important role in English Grammar. Even those who enjoy a good command over the language, sometimes commit mistakes. In the following discussion, we have given sixteen rules that teach the verb-subject agreement. Rule 1: If two or more singular nouns are joined by and, the verb used will be plural. Examples i. He and I were going to the market. ii. Ram and Mohan are friends.
In the above sentences, ‘verb-subject’ agreement is as follows : Subject Verb He and I Were [Two singular nouns joined by ‘and’] [a plural verb] Ram and Mohan Are [Two singular nouns joined by ‘and’] [a plural verb] (iii) Verbs which derive their 2nd and 3rd forms by the addition of -d, -ed, or -t and without a change in the vowel; as: First form Second form Third form Walk Walked Walked Talk Talked Talked Prove Proved Proved Shape Shaped Shaped Wash Washed Washed Writhe Writhed Writhed Climb Climbed Climbed Deal Dealt Dealt Mean Meant Meant Spoil* Spoilt or-spoiled Spoilt or-spoiled Hear Heard Heard Burn Burnt Burnt Dwell Dwelt Dwelt (iv) Verbs that have a vowel change as well as the addition of a suffix; as First form Second form Third form Feel Felt Felt Kneel Knelt Knelt Bring Brought Brought Sell Sold Sold Can Could Could Beseech Besought Besought Seek Sought Sought Tell Told Told
Think Thought Thought (v) In some cases, the verbs retain their original identity in all the three forms. They end in -d or -t; as: First form Second form Third form Bet Bet Bet Burst Burst Burst Cast Cast Cast Cost Cost Cost Cut Cut Cut Hit Hit Hit Hurt Hurt Hurt Let Let Let Put Put Put Rid Rid Rid Set Set Set Shed Shed Shed Spread Spread Spread Shut Shut Shut Slot Slot Slot Split Split Split Thrust Thrust Thrust Note: There are no hard and fast rules by which one can make out, by looking at a verb, how it is going to change its form. Therefore, in order to be able to use verbs correctly in all their forms, it is essential to develop familiarity with them. This can be done by reading and if possible memorising the list of verbs, with their different forms. Adverb An Adverb is a word that qualifies (i) a verb; (ii) an adjective; (iii) another adverb; (iv) a preposition. Examples He runs fast. In this sentence, the word fast is an adverb because it qualifies the verb runs. She is quite an intelligent girl. In this sentence, the word quite is an adverb because it qualifies the adjective intelligent. She can run very fast. In this sentence, the word very is an adverb because it qualifies the adverb fast. The ship has sailed right round the world. In this sentence, the word right is an adverb qualifying the preposition round.
* Spoil takes-t as well as ed to form past tense and past participle. Some Important Facts About Adverbs An adverb can qualify not merely individual words, but an entire assertive sentence. In this case, it must stand first in the sentence. Examples Unfortunately, the thief was not caught. Evidently, you were much distressed at the news. Probably, you are mistaken. Luckily, I escaped unhurt. Certainly, he is wrong. We could rewrite these sentences in the following forms : It is unfortunate that the thief was not caught. It was evident that you were much distressed at the news. Note: (a) As a general rule, adverbs do not qualify nouns or pronouns. But an adverb qualifies a noun or pronoun in such a sentence; as : Even torture could not break his spirit. (Qualifying Noun) Only you can tell us the facts. (Qualifying Pronoun) (b) In the following examples, the adverb that precedes the noun does not qualify the noun, but some participle or adjective that is understood The then king = the king then reigning. The above account = the account given above. (c) In the following example, the adverb almost does not qualify the noun drunkard but the verb is : He is almost drunk. To say, he is an almost drunkard would be incorrect. Kinds of Adverbs According to their use, adverbs are subdivided into three classes : I. Simple II. Interrogative III. Relative I. Simple Adverbs : Simple adverbs are used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjective or an adverb. These can be distinguished from one another by their meanings. (a) Time (Which shows when) He will soon arrive. He was taken ill yesterday. He did this before, and you have done it since. (b) Place (Which shows where) We must rest here. He went there. The book is under the table. My house is near the market.
(c) Frequency (Which shows how often) He always stood by his master. He did this once, but he will not do it again. He often goes for a morning walk. (d) Manner, Quality or State (Which shows how or in what manner) She spoke loudly. He behaved foolishly. He did his work slowly. I worked honestly. (e) Quantity, Extent or Degree (Which shows how much or in what degree or to what extent) She is quite an intelligent girl. He is clever enough for me. She is a very beautiful girl. (f) Affirming or Denying He did not come after all. Examples Yes, no, not, yea, nay, not at all, by all means, etc. As pronouns save the repetition of a noun, these adverbs save the repetition of a sentence. (g) Reason I fell off my bicycle, hence the bruises. He therefore left office. II. Interrogative Adverbs: This is the name given to those adverbs that are used for asking questions. (a) Time When do you intend to pay him? How long will you remain here? (b) Place Whether are you going? Where did you stop? (c) Number/Frequency How often does he visit you? How mane persons attended the meeting? (d) Manner, Quality or State How are you today? (In what state of health) How did you solve the sums? (e) Quantity or Degree How far was the statement true? (to what extent) (f) Cause or Reason Why did you do this‘? (for what reason) Wherefore did she weep? Note: The adverb how is sometimes used in an exclamatory sense How nice of you to help me! What in the sense of quantity or degree is similarly used in an exclamatory sense : What a beautiful flower it is! III. Relative Adverbs: Relative adverbs are the same in form as interrogative adverbs, but instead of asking questions, they join two sentences together.
These adverbs are called relative for two reasons- (1) because they relate to some antecedent, understood or expressed; (2) because they are formed from relative pronouns. (a) The Antecedent understood : This is where we work. Let us know when you will leave. (where = the place where we work) (when = the time when you will leave) (b) The Antecedent expressed This is the place where we work. Let us know the time when you will leave.
English Language & Comprehension Skills Common Error 1. Articles 1. Articles: There are three articles in English—a, an and the. A and an are called indefinite article.The is the definite article. An article is placed before a noun. If there is an adjective before a noun, the article is placed before the adjective: a train, a fast train, an incident, an unusual incident Note: We can never use a singular count noun alone, that is, without a/an/the/my/some/any etc. 2. A/an: Singular count nouns take the indefinite article a/an with them: a ball an egg a dog an elephant Uncount nouns do not generally take an article with them. we do not generally say a milk a beauty a wisdom for milk, beauty, wisdom cannot be counted. 3. We use a with singular count nouns beginning with a consonant sound: a girl a map a university a union a one-sided affair a one-rupee note Note: That the words university, union, and one begin with a vowel but no a vowel sound. University and union begin with the yoo sound while one begins with the w sound. Well-known words which begin with a vowel but take a with them are: European uniform union unit universal usual useful eau-de-cologne 4. An: An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound: an umbrella an opportunity an honest boy an honorable person The letter h in honest and honourable is not sounded. Common words in English which begin with an unsounded h are: heir heiress honest honorary honourable hour hourly 5. In abbreviations, if consonants begin with a vowel sound, they take an before them: an M.P. an S.P. But if consonants begin with a consonant sound, they take a before them: a Ph.D. a B.Ed. 6. Note the use of a in the following phrases: a pity a shame a pleasure a noise a rage a nuisance
a headache a toothache a bad cold in a whisper in a low voice in a loud voice to be at a loss 7. The definite Article the: The, the definite article, is a weakended form of that. It is pronounced as (di:) when it preceded a vowel sound and as do before a consonant sound. In meaning also, it is weaker than that. Instead of pointing out, it defines, particularises or singles out: I have read the book you are talking of. (not any book but a particular book that is being referred to) The artists who came to seem me today are quite accomplished. (not any artists but the ones who came to see me today) 8. In the examples given in § 7, the book and the artists are particularised by two adjective clauses. In certain cases, a noun's being particular may be clear from the context and it may not have any defining expression with it. The is also prefixed to such a noun: Shut the door. (the door of the room in which we are sitting) He was brought before the Principal. (The Principal of the institution in which he was studying) The king pardoned him. (the king we are talking about at the moment) 9. If I am looking at the picture of a room, I can talk about the ceiling, the floor, because there is only one ceiling and one floor, but I cannot talk about the wall if there are more than one walls in the picture because I would not be talking about the only one. I can, however, talk about the left wall and the right wall because there is only one left wall and one right wall in the picture. 10. More about the: We use the definite article the 1. with superlatives and the words used in the superlative sense: the best student in the class the Chief Justice the PrimeMinister 2. when special emphasis almost equivalent to the use of the superlative is intended: He is the leader today. (the greatest leader) This is just the thing. (the right thing) This is the way to solve this problem. (the proper way). 3. even in comparative degrees when one of the two items is singled out in preference to the other: He is the moon, the world, (But not: He is the finer batsman than others. The correct form would be : He is a finer bats man than others.) 4. with things of which there is only one in our world, or things which are otherwise well known but do not begin with a capital letter: the sun, the moon, the world, the equator, the north, the east. 5. in place of possessive adjectives: I hit him on the head. (= his head) Disappointment stared him in the face.( = his face) 6. with common nouns when one noun is used to represent the whole class or species: The horse is a faithful animal. The lion is the king of animals.
7. with an adjective with a plural notion to indicate a class of persons: The rich should help the poor. (We can say: Rich men should help poor men But not: The rich men should help the poor men.×) 8. as an adverb in case of certain comparatives: The more we get, the more we want. The harder you work, the better it will be. 9. to suggest distribution: (= each) We can buy oranges by the dozen. Cloth is sold by the metre. Exercise Fill in the blanks with a, an or the where necessary: 1. —— more you read, —— more you know. 2. —— stone hit him on —— head. 3. —— fox is —— very clever animal. 4. Only —— rich can afford ——comforts of ——modern times. 5. I have —— elder brother and —— younger sister. —— sister is —— wiser of the two. 6. If you are looking for —— entertaining as well as educative magazine, this is —— magazine for you. 7. —— sun rises in — east and sets in —west. 8. India is a little to —— north of —— equator. 9. —— oranges are sold by —— dozen. 11. Articles with Proper Nouns 1. Proper nouns, as a rule, do not take articles with them: Shakespeare was a great playwright. (Shakespeare) Samudragupta was a great warrior. (Samudragupta) 2. But if a proper noun is used as a common noun, it may take with it some article: He is a good playwright but not a Shakespeare. (not as great a playwright as Shakespeare) Kalidas is the Shakespeare of India. (as great a playwright for India as Shakespeare is for England) 3. We need the definite article the with the names of: Rivers the Ganga, the Yamuna Seas and oceans the Red Sea, the Atlantic Ocean Mountain ranges the Alps, the Himalayas Holy books the Bible, the Ramcharit Manas Trains, ships the Himgiri Express, the Ashoka (the name of a ship). Newspapers and the Pioneer, magazines the Hindustan Times, the Filmfare, the portstar Well-known the Gateway of India, buildings the Red Fort, the Qutub Minar Countries (if their name contains a common noun) the U.S.A., the U.K. (In United States of America, States is a common noun.) Peoples, parties the English, the French, the Whigs The whole families the Khans, the Kapurs
2. Prepositions Prepositions of Time A number of prepositions may be used to denote time: fromMonday; after my return; during the night; till tomorrow; before the bell rings; a quarter to ten. In most cases, it is easy to decide which preposition to use. The following prepositions, however, need special attention. 1. At, on, in (a) At usually denotes a definite point of time but can also be used for indefinite periods: at 7 p.m.; at this moment; (Definite at midnight; point of time) at the end of the class; at night; at dawn; (indefinite at Durga Puja; at Diwali. periods) (b) On is used with days and dates: on Monday; on 1st May; on the annual day; on a May afternoon. (c) In is used with parts of the day, and with months, years, seasons: in the morning; in September; in 2004; in winter. (d) In is also used with the future tense to show the period in which an action will happen: in a week; in four hours. (5) In and within. In means at the end of; within means before the end of: I shall be back in a week. (when a week is over) I shall be back within a week. (before a week is over) 2. By By refers to a point of future time and denotes the latest time at which an action will be over: The competition will be over by 6 p.m. (It should be over before it is 6 p.m., but the latest time at which it can be over is 6 p.m.) They will have declared the result by tomorrow evening. 3. For For is used with periods of time to show the duration of an action. It is mostly used with perfect continuous tenses though it may be found with other tenses as well: This discussion has been going on for two hours. I have worked in this office for two years. For may sometimes be omitted also: I have been busy the whole morning.(for the whole morning) 4. Since Since marks the point of time at which an action began. It is used only if the action has continued till the time of speaking; hence it is found with perfect continuous tenses. Unlike for, it can never be ommitted: She has been teaching in this college since 2001. A cool breeze has been blowing since morning. 5. From From denotes the starting point of an action and is used in all cases except when the action has continued till the moment of speaking. It is almost invariably used with to or till:
The examination will be held from 8 a.m. to 11 a.m. He was the Chief Minister of the state from 1999 to 2002. 6. At, in (a) At has the idea of an exact point and is, therefore, used with houses, villages, small towns. In has the idea of a larger area and is used while speaking of bigger towns, states, countries, etc.: at Karol Bagh in New Delhi; at Ambala; in England; at the end; in the middle. (b) At conveys the idea of a general neighbourhood; in conveys the idea of something contained: We say at the table to take our lunch. Please wait for me at the Regal PVR. Turn left at the next crossing. There are two Pepsi bottles in the refrigerator. You will find the stapler in the drawer. 7. On, upon On is used while speaking of things at rest; upon is used with things in motion: The file is on the table. The dog sprang upon the table. 8. Above, over Both above and over mean higher than. Sometimes we can use either of them: The flags waved over our heads. The flags waved above our heads. But over can also mean coverning, or vertically above: My father put a blanket over me. There is a fan exactly over the table. 9. Below, under Both below and under mean lower than and sometimes we can use either of them. But under means vertically below. It also has the idea of contact: There was a beautiful lake below us in the valley. His shoes were lying under the table. She put the keys of the wardrobe under her pillow. 10. Into Into denotes movement towards the interior of something: He jumped into the well. One stream flows into another. Figuratively: We have entered into an agreement to export handicrafts to some European countries. 11. For For is used to denote direction when the verb shows the beginning of a movement: The children leaves for the school at 7 a.m. We shall soon set off for Mumbai. 12. Against
Against shows pressure or contact: He threw the goods against the wall. Prepositions of direction from. Most common among these are: from, off, out of: 13. From From is used with the point of departure: He brought these books from the market. He had already gone from home. 14. Out of It is the opposite of into. It means from the interior of: He took a few books out of the almirah. 3. Common Errors Section I—COMMON ERRORS IN THE USE OF NOUNS Number 1. Nouns having the Same Form in Singular as well as in Plural (a) Nouns expressing number: two hundred people; three dozen eggs; four score oranges. But note: scores of organes; hundreds of people. (b) Nouns in expressions like a ten-rupee note; a five-year old child; a five-kilometre walk. (c) Names of some animals: sheep, deer, swine. 2. Nouns used as Singular The following nouns are generally used in the singular: alphabet, bedding, clothing, furniture, information, luggage, machinery, offspring, poetry, scenery, physic etc.: 3. Nouns Plural in Form but used as Singular (a) Branches of learning: Mathematics, Physics, Mechanics, Statistics (b) Diseases: Mumps, measles (c) Games and sports: Billiards, draughts, gymnastics. (d) News, summons, innings, wages: 4. Nouns always used as Plural (a) Articles of dress: shoes, socks, trousers, pyjamas, shorts. But a pair of shoes is singular: Leather shoes are very costly in Russia. A pair of shoes is all I need. (b) Names of instruments: scissors, tongs, bellows, Spectacles, shears: These scissors are very sharp. My spectacles have been lost. (c) Other nouns like alms, annals, ashes, assets, intestines, thanks, proceeds, spirits, tidings, savings, belongings, contents, credentials, nuptials: The proceeds of this show are being donated to the National Defence Fund. 5. Nouns Singular in Form but used as Plural Cattle, gentry, peasantry, poultry, clergy: The cattle are grazing in the field. If the peasantry flourish, the country prospers. The gentry were found uncooperative. 6. Nouns with Two Plural Forms which Differ in Meaning
Singular Plural Brother Brothers (Sons of the same parents) Cloth Cloths (kinds or pieces of cloth) Clothes (garments) Genius Geniuses (persons of great talent) Genii (spirits) Index Indexes (tables of contents) Indices (signs used in Algebra) 7. A pronoun must have the same gender, number and person as the noun it represents: The girl has deposited her books at the counter. She is now coming to the library. Mohan's son has lost his watch. He needs a new one. 8. When a personal pronoun is used as the object of a verb or a preposition, it is placed in the objective case: I accused him of theft. (objects of a Let me do it. verb) How long did you wait for me? (object of a preposition) Besides him, many others voted in my favour (object of a preposition) 9. When a pronoun is used as the complement of the verb to be, it is placed in the nominative case: It is I. In informal conversation, they often say it is me, but if the pronoun is followed by a clause, nominative case must be used: It is I who scored the goal. 10. The pronouns governed by than and as can be placed either in the nominative case or in the objective case depending upon the meaning to be conveyed: I love you more than he. (than he loves you) I love you more than him. (than I love him) You helped me as much as she. (as much as she helped me) You helped me as much as her. (as much as you helped her) 11. Comparison of Adjective The comparative degree of an adjective is used to compare two things, the superlative to compare more than two things. If no comparison is implied, we use positive degree: Mayur is a tall boy. (No comparison, hence the positive degree of the adjective tall) Mayur is taller than Shubham. (Comparison between two persons, hence the comparative degree of the adjective tall) Mayur is the tallest boy in the class. (Comparison among all the boys of the class, hence the superlative degree of the adjective tall) Note: Comparative degree is usually followed by than; superlative degree takes with it the definite article the. See the examples given above. 12. Double comparatives and superlatives must not be used. Incorrect. He is more cleverer than his cousin. Correct. He is cleverer than his cousin. Incorrect. Mount Everest is the most highest peak in the world. Correct. Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world. 13. Other Mercury is heavier than any other metal. Mercury is the heaviest of all metals. In the first sentence, mercury is to be excluded from the metals, with which it is being compared. In the
second sentence it is one of them. It would be incorrect to say: Mercury is heavier than any metal. Mercury is the heaviest of all other metals. 14. Comparatives ending in or, superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior, are followed by to and not by than. We do not use with them more also: He is senior to me by three years. My pen is superior to yours. 15. Very, much (i) Very qualifies adjectives or adverbs in the positive degree, much qualifies them in the comparative degree: She is a very intelligent girl. Today she is looking much weaker than usual. She runs very fast. She runs much faster than Soumya. (ii) Very is used with present participles when they are used as adjective; much is used to modify past participles when they have their full verbal function: The scenery is very charming. The foreign policy of the government was much criticised in Parliament. However, if a past participle is used purly as an adjective, it is modified by very and not by much: I felt very tired. I am very satisfied to see your work. Other such participle adjectives are: pleased, surprised, delighted, grieved, pained, annoyed, experienced, contented, concerned, disappointed, interested,worried, bored, shocked, astonished, excited, etc. (iii) Very is used with an adjective in the superlative degree for emphasis: He is the very best student in the class. Much is used with an adjective in the superlative degree to intensify the meaning: You are much the brightest (by the brightest) student in the class. 16. Too (i) Too denotes a higher degree than is desirable, natural, proper or expected. It should never be used instead of very or much. It is incorrect to say: 'The water is too cold'. Instead, one should say: 'The water is very cold'. (ii) Too preceded by only has a positive sense: He is only too glad to meet his friends. (He is extremely glad to meet his friends.) (iii) Too much is generally used before a noun: He take too much sugar in his tea. You take too much care of your health. (iv) Too means also: Have you been to the party, too? This, too, is very important. In speech, we use too more often than also. 17. Enough Enough means sufficient and is always used in the positive sense. It is placed after the adjective or adverb but before the noun:
He was tall enough to reach the shelf. I ran fast enough to overtake her. There isn't enough room to sit down. 18. Wrong use or Omission of Prepositions Make a careful note of the following wrong use of prepositions: A. Where a preposition should not have been used Incorrect Correct 1. I have ordered for dinner. I have ordered dinner. 2. The younger brother resembles to the elder. The younger brother resembles the elder. 3. I want the police to investigate into the case. I want the police to investigate the case. 4. He deeply loved with me. He deeply loved me. 5. I reached at Delhi only this morning. I reached Delhi only this morning. 6. The teacher has not yet entered into the classroom. The teacher has not yet entered the classroom. 7. Why have you picked up a quarrel with him? Why have you picked a quarrel with him? B. Where a preposition should not have been omitted Incorrect Correct 1. He will not listen what you say. He will not listen to what you say. 2. Have you disposed the old furniture you wanted to? Have you disposed of the old furniture you wanted to? 3. Your fault does not admit any excuse. Your fault does not admit of any excuse. 4. Could you lend me your pen to write a letter? Could you lend me your pen to write a letter with? C. Where a wrong preposition has been used Incorrect Correct 1. I could not understand why he was angry upon me. I could not understand why he was angry with me. 2. Our examination begins from 1st May. Our examination begins on 1st May. 3. You are required to sign with ink. You are required to sign in ink. 4. I enquired from him where he lived. I enquired of him where he lived D. Make a careful study of the following sentences in which the use of the infinitive is erroneous and should be replaced by a preposition followed by a gerund or a noun: Incorrect Correct 1. He insisted to leave immediately. He insisted on leaving immediately. 2. You should refrain to tell lies. You should refrain from telling lies. 3. The policeman prevented him to park The policeman prevented him from his car parking his car
there. there 4. The invigilator prohibited the student to copy. The invigilator prohibited the student from copying. 19. That. That should not be used before interrogative adverbs or pronouns in indirect narration: Incorrect. He asked me that when he could come to see me. Correct. He asked me when he could come to see me. 20. Since. Since shows 'from which time'. It is preceded by present perfect tense (sometimes present indefinite tense) and followed by past indefinite tense: Three months have passed since he last wrote to me. It is about a month since I met her. 21. Unless, if. Unless means if not. It should not be confused with if: Incorrect. Unless he does not apologies, he should not be allowed to sit in the class. Correct. Unless he apologies, he should not be allowed to sit in the class. 22. Lest. Lest means 'in order that ..... not'. It always takes should with it: Cover your head properly lest you should catch cold. Note. The clause beginning with lest should not be negative. Incorrect. Let us catch a taxi lest we should not get late. Correct. Let us catch a taxi lest we should get late. MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS INCLUDING AMBIGUITIES AND INDIANISMS Incorrect Correct 1. I hope you are keeping good health. I hope you are enjoying good health. 2. These days he is enjoying bad health. These days he is keeping bad health. 3. Many homes are lying vacant. Many houses are lying vacant 4. Are you going to your house straight from the office? Are you going home straight from the office? 5. The roads of this town are narrow. The streets of this town are narrow. 6. Let us sit in the shadow of the tree. Let us in the shade of the tree. 7. How many individuals were present in the meeting? How many persons were present in the meeting? 8. He made an interesting lecture. He delivered an interesting lecture. 9. My leg is paining. I am feeling pain in my leg. 10. The captain of our team made four goals The captain of our team scored four goals.
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